Approaches Flashcards
Schools of psychology
Biological, Psychodynamic, Behaviourist, Humanistic, Cognitive, social learning theory
Why are there different approaches in psychology ?
Each approach looks at human behaviour from a different perspective. They all contribute to our understanding in a different way.
Willhelm Wundt
His approach was to study the structure of the human mind by breaking down behaviours into their basic elements (Introspection)
Structuralism
Isolating the structure of the consciousness. The stimuli that Wundt was presented with was in the same order and the instructions were issued the same.
Introspection
A systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
Discuss Wundt’s role in the emergence of psychology as a science.
-first to open a laboratory designated to the scientific study of psychological enquiry under controlled conditions
- focus was on trying to understand psychological processes of perception (structuralism)
- introspection still used today in areas such as therapy and studying emotional states
origins of psychology limitations (Subjective)
- relies primarily on non-observable responses and although participants can report conscious experiences they can’t comment on unconscious factors.
- produces data that was subjective (varied) so it became very difficult to establish general principles, so experimental results are not reliably produced.
Origins of psychology strengths (scientific)
-some of his methods were systematic and well-controlled
-recorded in controlled lab environment
-extraneous variables were not a factor
-standardised procedure
- can be considered a forerunner for later scientific approaches
Describe Wundt’s role in the development of psychology.(6 marks)
- Wundt known as ‘the father of psychology’
-Set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany in 1870s.
-Promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes.
-Introspection – systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus.
-An experience was analysed in terms of its component parts e.g. sensations, emotional reaction etc.
-His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes
Outline Wundt’s method of introspection.
-introspection is a systematic analysis of one’s own conscious experience
-experiences are analysed in terms of their component parts/reference to ‘structuralism’
-These parts are elements like sensation, emotional reactions etc
Assumptions of the behaviourist approach
-we are born as blank slates
-All we have at birth is the capacity to learn
-All behaviour is leant from the environment
-Focus of the approach: observable behaviour
Classical conditioning
learning through association
Involves the formation of learned associations between the stimuli in the environment and an organism’s response.
extinction
The CR does not become permanently established as a response
(if the bell is rung and good never appears the salivation stops)
spontaneous recovery
following extinction if the CS and UCS are paired together once again, the association will be made together much more quickly
stimulus generalisation
pavlov discovered that once an animal has been conditioned they will also respond to another stimulus that are similar to the CS.
Operant conditioning
Leaning by consequences
What do consequences include ?
- Positive reinforcement
-Negative reinforcement
-punishment
Reinforcement
A consequence of a behaviour that increases the likelihood of the behaviour happening again
punishment
A consequence that decreases the likelihood of that behaviour happening again
positive reinforcement
involves receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed
negative reinforcement
animal/human avoids something unpleasant
continuous reinforcement
providing a food pellet for every lever pressed
partial reinforcement
Providing food for every 3rd (or 10th) lever pressed
Variable ratio reinforcement
food was given after an unpredictable amount of times
What is a strength of the behaviourist approach (real world application)
-principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours
-E.g token economy systems
-This is where a token is given for a certain behaviour and this can be exchanged for privileges
-This increases the value of the approach because it has widespread application
What is a limitation of the behaviourist approach (Environmental determinism)
-Sees behaviour as being conditioned by past conditioning experiences
-Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history
-This ignores any possible influence of free will
-This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision making processes.
What did Bandura believe
-Behaviour is learnt from experience
-Proposed learning occurred from observing others and imitating them
Theory of social learning theory
We learn through modelling, which involves learning through the observation of other people, which may lead to imitation of the behaviour
Role model
People who have qualities we would like to have and we identify with
Identification
A desire to be associated with a particular person or group
Imitation
Copying the behaviour of others, only tends to occur if model is rewarded
Modelling
From an observer’s perspective, imitating the behaviour of a role model.
From the role model’s perspective, the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may then be imitated by an observer
Direct reinforcement
A human/animal receives the reward themselves. Think positive/negative reinforcement.
Vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation.
The role of mediational processes
These are cognitive factors involved in learning. These mental factors mediate in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired.
Attention
The individual notices someone in their environment
Retention
The individual remembers what they have observed
Motor reproduction
The individual replicates the behaviour shown by the model
Motivation
The individual has the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.
Cognitive approach 1950s
the digital revolution of the 1950s gave psychologists a metaphor for studying the mind
Inference
An assumption about mental processes that cannot be directly observed
Cognitive approach
This approach argues that internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically
- Investigating areas such as memory, perception and thinking
Schema
Defined as a mental framework of belief and expectation that influence cognitive processing. These develop from experience.
learning from Schema
When we learn we add to schemas that already exist.
- if it is a completely new concept we start a new schema.
-The more links we make across schemas the more likely we are to remember something
theoretical models
Are diagrammatic representations of the steps involved in internal mental processes. E.g the information-processing model of memory
Computer models
Are software stimulation’s of internal mental processes that are created in collaboration with computer scientists
Cognitive neuroscience
the scientific study of the biological structures that underpin cognitive processes
Involves mapping the brain, and seeing what is involved with certain activities
Scanning techniques
FMRI and PET scans are used to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Scans brain activity when a person is performing a task
- see which areas of the brain are richer in oxygen
Positron emission tomography
allows a researcher to see activity - radioactive glucose is ingested and can be detected in active areas of the brain
What do scanning techniques do
-helped to provide understanding about memory as well as mental disorders (OCD and depression)
-cognitive neuroscience has expanded to include computer models.
Brain fingerprinting
Could be used in the future to assist with analysing brain wave patterns which could be used to establish if witnesses are telling the truth.
What are strengths of the cognitive approach
Scientific method
Real world application
What is a limitation of the cognitive approach
Machine reductionism
Unconscious
Part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour
Role of the unconscious
Freud suggests that the conscious mind is just the ‘tip of the iceberg’
- the unconscious makes up most of the mind. Storehouse for biological drives and instinct
Tripartite personality
Freud believe that the ID, ego and superego were separate and conflicting forces in your mind
- they need to be balanced for good mental health and normal behaviour
ID (pleasure principle)
Entirely unconscious and made up of selfish and aggressive instinct that demand immediate gratification
Ego (reality principle)
The mediation that balances the conflicting demand of the ID and superego
Superego (the morality principle)
The moralistic part of the personality which represents the ideal self, how we ought to be
How does personality develop ?
Freud suggests that personality develops from birth onwards
- the psychosexual stages show when different parts of the personality are developing
Defence mechanisms
psychological strategies used unconsciously to protect ego from unacceptable thoughts and feelings
Repression
Forcing a distressing or threatening memory out of your conscious mind
Denial
Failing or refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality.
Displacement
Transferring feelings from the true object of anxiety onto a substitute target/object.
What are strengths of the psychodynamic approach ?
Real-world Application
Explanatory Power and Impact
What are limitations of the psychodynamic approach ?
-Psychodynamic therapies are not suitable for severe mental disorders
-Untestable
Falsification
Scientific theories cannot be proven to be true - they can only be subjected to attempts to prove them false
What is the humanistic approach ?
Became known as the third force in psychology alongside the behaviourist and psychodynamic approach as it provided a challenge for both.
Rogers believed that Freud had portrayed the ‘sick’ side of psychology
Why is the humanistic approach different ?
The approaches looked at so far have been determinist– they have suggested that behaviour is entirely, or at least partly shared by factors we have no control over.
The humanistic approach suggests we have free will and are active agents who determine our own development
This is considered a person centred approach
Free will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external factors. It still acknowledges these forces but says humans are active agents who determine their own development.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow was interested in what motivates people. He created a five levelled hierarchical sequence that shows what motivates our behaviour.
Basic needs must be satisfied before higher psychological needs can be achieved.
Self-Actualisation
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil ones full potential – becoming what you are capable of
Humanistic psychologists believe we work through different stages to achieve personal growth which involves becoming fulfilled, satisfied and goal orientated.
What does self-actualisation look like?
Self-actualisation is very difficult to assess as the concept of ‘potential’ is open-ended.
Many people do not meet Maslow’s criteria for self-actualisation
The self, congruence and conditions of worth
For personal growth to be achieved an individual’s concept of the self (the way they see themselves) must have congruence (match) the ideal self (the person they want to be).
Client centred therapy
aims to reduce the gap between the self-concept and ideal self.
Therapists’ role is to provide unconditional positive regard.
What are the strengths of the humanistic approach
not reductionist
positive approach
What are the limitations of the humanistic approach ?
Untestable concepts
Reductionist approach’s are seen as scientific
Biological approach 1980s
This approach has taken scientific psychology to a new level new advances in technology are used to investigate physiological processing, for example EEG, FMRI.
Assumptions of the Biological approach
-Everything psychological is at first biological
- focuses on biological structures and processes within the body and nervous system
- The mind lives in the brain
Neurochemical basis of behaviour
refers to the actions of chemicals in the brain. These actions are said to cause our behaviour.
- neurotransmitters are chemicals that diffuse across the synapses delivering signals from one neuron to another.
Genetic basis of behaviour
Psychologists are interested in trying to determine and provide evidence for the extent to which behaviours, or a characteristic such as intelligence, are the product of inheritance or environmental influence.
Methods of investigating the genetic basis of behaviour
- twin studies
- family studies
- adoption studies
- selective breeding
monozygotic
one zygote-, these twins are formed from one egg and form 2 embryos
dizygotic
two zygotes, formed when two separate eggs become fertilised (non-identical)
Concordance rate
the extent to which a pair of twins share the same characteristics
Family studies
Any resemblance between family relatives could be a result of both genes and shared environment
Adoption studies
These studies involve comparing a trait or characteristic between adopted children and their biological or adoptive parents.
Genotype
the particular set of genes that an organism possesses (their genetic make up).
Phenotype
the characteristics of an individual, determined by genes and the environment (the ways that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics).
Evolution
the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
The strengths of the biological approach
real world application
scientific methods
The limitations of the biological approach
Drugs don’t work for everyone
Determinism
