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Psychology Topics 1-8 paper 1 and 2 > Research methods. Year 1 + some statistics > Flashcards

Research methods. Year 1 + some statistics Flashcards

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1
Q

What is meant by participant reactivity?

A

Ppts are not passive in an experiment
An extraneous variable
Ppts will be trying to make sense of the situation
Effect of this is demand characteristics

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2
Q

What is an Independent variable?

A

Something that the researcher changes or manipulates to observe effects. It is the thing being changed

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3
Q

What is meant by Dependent variable?

A

The thing that is being measured

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4
Q

What is the definition of an extraneous variable?

A

An outside variable which can influence/ have an effect on the outcome

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5
Q

What is repeated measures design and what are the advantages and disadvantages?

A

-Same ppts used in both conditions

Advantages:
+ Controls for individual differences
+ Fewer total ppts required (saves time and energy)

Disadvantages:
- Order effects
- Demand characteristics

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6
Q

What is independent measures design and what are advantages and disadvantages?

A

-Different ppts used conditions

Advantages:
+ No order effects
+ Can be useful when looking at gender differences
+ Cheap and quick to recruit ppts compared to matched pairs design

Disadvantage:
- Ppts variables which are not controlled (personality, IQ…). Acts as confounding variables, researcher cannot control these variables.

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7
Q

Explain matched pairs design and its advantages and disadvantages

A

-Match similar ppts together so you can compare these two results together as they are similar
-Find out the type of people and match them with similar people to take part in the other condition

Advantage:
+ Controls for induvial differences between ppts
+ Researcher can compare results without individual differences affecting results

Disadvantage:
-Difficult to match people
-It is time consuming due to the pre test on matching which takes place before hand
-This can be costly financially

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8
Q

Strengths of laboratory experiments

A

+Control over extraneous variables
+Cause and effect be established
+Replicable due to high control of extraneous variables + use of standardised procedures
+Results can be checked for reliability as the same experiment can be conducted on multiple ppts

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9
Q

Weaknesses of laboratory experiments

A

-Lack of ecological validity due to artificial setting. Difficult to generalise the findings to the real world
-Demand characteristics. Ppts behaviour may not be natural due to the artificial set up of the environment. Ppts figure out the aims of the experiment (Please-U and Screw-U)
-Low mundane realism. Tasks carried out in lab experiments makes the results difficult to generalise to rea life

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10
Q

Difference between mundane realism and ecological validity

A

Ecological validity = To do with the environment
Mundane realism = To do with the task

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11
Q

Definition of a lab experiment

A

Takes place in a controlled artificial environment and the researcher directly manipulates the IV to see effects on DV

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12
Q

Definition of a field experiment

A

Field experiments are performed in a natural setting such as hospitals, schools, factories, trains or even on the street

IV is manipulated by researcher. Difficult to control extraneous variables in this type of experiment

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13
Q

What is a field experiment?
What are the advantages?
What are the disadvantages?

A

What it is
Conducted in a natural setting, IV manipulated by the researcher

Advantages:
-High external validity which means you can generalise it to real life situations (people show more naturalistic behaviours)
-No demand characteristics

Disadvantages:
-Hard to control extraneous variables, could argue that result may not be due to IV

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14
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Whether a psychological test, experiment or observation produces a genuine result

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15
Q

What is external validity?

A

Whether the research findings can be generalised beyond the research setting in which it was found
(generalisability)

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16
Q

What is a natural experiment and what are the advantages and disadvantages?

A

What it is
Change in IV has occurred naturally so not be manipulated by researchers e.g. would have happened even if the researcher had not been there

Advantages:

-High external validity (changes happened in real life)
-No demand characteristics
-Allow research in areas that could not happen due to ethical or cost reasons

Disadvantages:

-No control of extraneous variables which means it is hard to establish cause and effect
-Rare and can’t be replicated to see if we would get similar results not replicable

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17
Q

What is a quasi experiment and what are the advantages and disadvantages?

A

Change in IV cannot be manipulated or randomly assigned (male/female/old/new)

Advantages
-Only way to study these variables
-Often carried out in controlled conditions E.g. Bobo doll

Disadvantages
-Unable to know if gender is the reason for the result as you can’t control ppt variables

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18
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

When you can generalise to a different place or setting

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19
Q

What is mundane realism

A

Is the task similar to what we would do in real life

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20
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

Can you generalise to a different century, or decade

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21
Q

What is naturalistic observation and what are the advantages and disadvantages

A

In a real-life setting

Advantages

+ High ecological validity due to the natural setting/environment in which observation takes place. The researcher doesn’t manipulate any aspects of the situation

+ Generalisability of findings as behaviour applies to real-life, everyday setting

Disadvantages
-Low levels of control may be unknown extraneous variables contributing to behaviour meaning it is hard to replicate these results

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22
Q

What is a controlled observation and what are the advantages and disadvantages

A

Aspects of the environment are controlled, to give ppts same experience, Often conducted in a lab (Ainsworth and Bandura)

Advantages

-High control reduces the likelihood of extraneous variables being responsible for the observed behaviour
-Results are reliable as they used the same standardised procedures

Disadvantages
-Low external validity because the environment is artificial, Behaviour may not be repeated in the actual environment

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23
Q

3 strengths of longitudinal studies

A

-Give us deeper insight into behaviour by seeing how behaviour changes overtime
-Give us insight into how early experiences shapes behaviour
-More reliable results

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24
Q

What is attrition?

A

When there is a loss of ppts across the course of a study

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25
Q

Definition of a case study

A

-An in-depth analysis of individual, group, institution/event
-Typically involves analysis of unusual individuals or disorders.
-They are idiographic and very individualistic
-Typically longitudinal

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26
Q

Strengths of case studies

A

+ Allows researchers to study the individuals/events/complex psychological areas they could not practically or ethically manipulate

+ Offers rich detailed insights into behaviours which cannot be studied scientifically and may not be understood

+ Useful as it can be used to develop theories E.g. HM demonstrated separate stores for LTM

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27
Q

Weaknesses of Case Studies

A
  • Small samples make it difficult to generalise results to the wider population
  • Risk of bias as researchers can become too involved and lose their objectivity: misinterpreting or influencing outcomes
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28
Q

What is meant by the target population?

A

People the psychologist is specifically interested in

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29
Q

What is random sampling?

A

When all members of the population have an equal chance of being selected

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30
Q

Strengths of random sampling

A

+ No selector bias
+ Everyone has an equal chance of being selected

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31
Q

Weaknesses of random sampling

A

-Takes more time to carry out compared to other methods
- Freak sample

32
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Recruiting people who are most convenient or available

33
Q

Strengths of opportunity sampling

A

+ Easy to find ppts
+ Takes less time to find ppts

34
Q

Weakness of opportunity sampling

A
  • Sample bias - PPTs are drawn from a small part of the population. Maybe all from the same ethnic background, social class, race, and age … So the sample isn’t representative of the wider population
35
Q

What is a covert observation?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of covert observation?

A

Ppts behaviour is watched and recorded without them knowing.

+ No demand characteristics
+ Higher validity

  • Unethical, ppts haven’t given informed consent to being watched
36
Q

What is an overt observation?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of an overt observation?

A

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge or consent

+ No ethical issues
-Participant reactivity, leads to demand characteristics, weakening the validity of results

37
Q

What is a participant observation?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of participant observation?

A

Psychologists will join the group they are studying to better observe the behaviour

+Gain insight

-Lacking objectivity. Researchers may become less neutral, creating bias

38
Q

What is event sampling?

A

Involves recording the number of times a particular behaviour within the behavioural category occurs whilst observing participants

39
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Recording the behaviour in an established time frame

40
Q

Weakness of using correlations

A
  • Doesn’t establish cause and effect. Doesn’t tell us how X causes Y, meaning we can’t gain deeper insight into what is really happening between two variables
41
Q

Strengths of using correlations

A

+ Highlights potential causal relationships

+ Can show the direction and strength of the relationship

42
Q

Strength of qualitative data

A

+ High external validity. Researchers can gain a better insight into participant worldview
+Rich detail - Pmts fully able to report their thoughts, feelings and opinions

43
Q

Weakness of qualitative data

A

-Data is often difficult to analyse. Conclusions rely on subjective interpretations of researcher meaning it could be biassed

-Described as not scientific

44
Q

Strengths of quantitative data

A

+ Easy to make comparisons and trends between groups

+ Objective

+ Data is easy to analyse

45
Q

Weakness of quantitative

A
  • Numerical findings often lack meaning and context
  • Responses can be narrow in explaining complex human behaviour. May fail to represent ‘real life’
46
Q

Definition of a case study

A

An in-depth study of an individual, group, institution/event. Typically involves analysis of unusual individuals or disorders. They are idiographic and individualistic

47
Q

Weaknesses of Case Studies

A

-Small samples make it difficult to generalise findings

  • Risk of bias as researchers become too involved and lose their objectivity, misinterpreting or influencing outcomes
  • Difficult to establish cause and effect as case studies happen after the event
  • Case studies often depend on the memory of participants: retrospective data might be inaccurate
48
Q

Strengths of case studies

A
  • Allows researchers to study events/ complex psychological areas they could not practically or ethically manipulate
  • Offers rich and detailed insights into behaviours which cannot be studied scientifically and/or may not be understood
  • Useful as it can lead to the development of theories E.g. HM demonstrated separate stores of LTM
49
Q

What is reliability a measure of?

A
  • Measure of consistency
  • If a particular result can be repeated then that measurement is described as being reliable
50
Q

Ways to ensure reliability in interviews

A
  • Use the same interviewer
    -Dont ask questions which are open to ambiguity
  • Use a trained interviewer - less likely to ask ambiguous questions which are open to interpretation
    -Dont ask leading questions
  • Use structured interviewers
51
Q

Ways of testing reliability (Test-retest)

A
  • Giving the same questionnaire to the same person/group of people on a different occasion
  • If the test is reliable, the result should be the same or very similar
  • If the correlation is above 0.8 then there is good reliability
  • Must be sufficient time between two tests
52
Q

Ways to increase the reliability of observations

A
  • Should be more than one observer
  • Conduct a small-scale ‘pilot study’
  • Administer appropriate behavioural categories
  • Observers should watch the same event independently and record data using agreed behavioural categories
  • Ensure behavioural categories have been operationalised
53
Q

Why are lab studies easily replicable?

A

Due to the high/strict control the researcher has over extraneous variables

  • Researcher manipulates the IV to see an effect on DV
  • Researchers can control experimental conditions but also the instructions ppts are receiving
  • Means lab experiments are much easier to replicate
54
Q

4 types of quantitative data?

A
  • Nominal
  • Ordinal
  • Ratio
  • Interval
55
Q

When is the sign test used?

A
  • Need to look for a difference rather than a correlation
  • Data has to be nominal
56
Q

What is ordinal data?

A

Data which exists in natural categories

57
Q

What is nominal data?

A

Data which exists in categories with no natural order

58
Q

What is ratio data?

What is interval data?

A

Regarding number values, we can directly see how much bigger one value is than another. Can’t go below 0

Numbers which can go below 0 (E.g. Temperature or money in a bank account)

59
Q

Continuous vs Discrete data

A

Continuous - Not restricted to certain numbers. E.g. Height or weight. You can be 70.9 kg or 178.5 cm tall

Discrete—Restricted to certain numbers. For example, the number of children somebody has has to be a whole number; they can’t have 2.4 kids.

60
Q

Ordinal and nominal data are always …

A

DISCRETE

61
Q

When to use the Sign test

A
  • When testing for a different
    -Nominal data
62
Q

What does the t-test tell us?

A

The probability of observing our results if the null hypothesis is correct

63
Q

As the t-value gets bigger, the probability of observing our results if the null hypothesis is correct gets…

A

Smaller

64
Q

The smaller the t-value, the bigger the probability of the null hypothesis being…

A

correct

65
Q

Factors affecting the size of the t-value

A

-Dispersion of data
-Difference between means of the samples
-Sample size

66
Q

How is the t value affected by the dispersion of the data?

A

The smaller the t-value, the more likely it is that our null hypothesis is correct.
The bigger the dispersion, the smaller the t-value.
The bigger the dispersion, the more likely it is that our null hypothesis is correct.

67
Q

As the sample size increases, the t-value gets…

A

Bigger

68
Q

As the sample size gets bigger, the probability of observing our results if the null hypothesis is correct gets…

A

Smaller

69
Q

What is the p-value?

A

Probability of observing our results if the null hypothesis is correct

70
Q

As the p-value gets smaller, is the null hypothesis more or less likely to be correct?

A

LESS

71
Q

What is a type 1 error?

A

Incorrectly reject the null hypothesis, and say there is a real difference between two experimental groups when there isn’t one.

72
Q

What is a type 2 error?

A

When researchers fail to reject the null hypothesis and conclude their results happened by chance, when there is a difference

73
Q

What does the significance level tell us?

A

How likely we are to make a type 1 error

74
Q

To balance the risk of a Type
1 and Type 2 error, researchers usually use a significance level of…

A

5%

75
Q

As the t-value gets bigger, the p-value gets…

A

Smaller

76
Q

We reject the null hypothesis if the obtained t-value is…

A

Bigger than, or equal to, the critical t-value for our significance level.

Psychology Topics 1-8 paper 1 and 2 (8 decks)

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