Approaches Flashcards
Frued was a nonce
Explain what is meant by classical conditioning
A type of learning that occurs through associations being made between the unconditioned response and the neutral stimulus.
Explain classical conditioning in Pavlov’s experiment
Before conditioning, the dog would salivate when food was presented in front of it. When a bell sound was heard by the dog it had no observable effect.
Pavlov then placed the food in front of the dog but also paired it the a bell sound, and this was repeated.
The dog then made the connection of the food and the bell so that when just the bell sound was heard, the dog began to salivate. The neutral stimulus
What are the main assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
-We learn through associations between stimuli in our environment and our responses to them (classical conditioning) or the consequences of our behaviour (operant conditioning)
-Behaviour is learnt through environment, therefore it can be unlearnt
- Ignores mental processes
-Learning can be generalised across species
Explain operant conditioning
-A type of learning where behaviour is acquired and maintained based on its consequences.
-Reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observed behaviour being repeated, whilst punishment (an unpleasant consequence of behaviour) decreases this likelihood.
Explain positive reinforcement
Providing a reward or pleasant consequence when a particular behaviour is performed
This is done to encourage the behaviour so that it can be repeated in the future
Explain negative reinforcement
When your actions stop a negative stimulus. Increases reinforcement
E.g.
Your mum shouts at you to clean your room so you clean it and she stops shouting
Explain positive punishment
Providing an unpleasant consequence after a behaviour is displayed. This is done to discourage the behaviour so that it can be reduced in the future
E.g.
A child talks in class so teacher gives them extra homework
Explain negative punishment
-When you remove the positive stimulus
Explain Skinners box experiment
-The rat moves around the cage and accidentally presses the lever- which releases food (the reinforcer)
-The rat then continues to press the lever in order to obtain food as a positive consequence
-If the food pallets stop, the rat presses the lever a few more times and the abandons it
This validates the behaviourist approach as it clearly provides an explanation for how we learn behaviour through consequences
AO3
Outline one strength of the behaviourist approach
(Scientific method)
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One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is highly scientific
For example, both Skinner and Pavlov conducted lab studies where the independent variable was manipulated and extraneous variables were controlled meaning the dependent variable could be measured. This suggests that the studies supporting the behaviourist approach have high internal validity because of high control over extraneous variables and it has high reliability because it was highly standardised. Therefore this means we are able to establish a causal relationship between variables and outcomes in this approach, thus strengthening our acceptance of the behaviourist approach.
HOWEVER, lab studies directly manipulate the IV and control for all extraneous variables meaning they can not accurately replicate real life scenarios, thus indicating we cant apply operant and classical conditioning in the real world because they were derived from lab studies which are low in ecological validity
AO3
Outline one strength of the behaviourist approach
(Therapies)
One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has led to therapies
For example, through the behaviourist principle that ‘all behaviour cant be learnt and therefore unlearnt’ behavioural therapies for mental health issues such as phobias have been developed. Research indicates these behavioural therapies have been effective at reducing the fear of a phobic stimuli. Classical conditioning has been used to treat phobias in patients. e.g the fear of a phobic stimuli. This is a strength of the approach as it indicates that principles of the behaviourist approach can be used for development of behavioural therapies which can improve the quality of a patients life, thus strengthening acceptance of the approach
AO3
Outline one weakness of the behaviourist approach
(Overly reductionist)
One weakness of this approach is that it is overly reductionist. For example, the approach completely ignores biological factors which influence behaviour such as genes hormones and neurotransmitters, and dont account for mental processes as they are not observable, rather behaviourists explain behaviour purely in terms of stimulus and response. This suggests this approach breaks behaviour down into simple components such as stimulus and response and in doing so ignore other factors which influence behaviour, only focusing on the nurture side of understanding behaviour
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Outline one weakness of the behaviourist approach
(Animal studies)
One limitation of this approach is the use of animal research.
For example, Pavlov used dogs in his experiment and Skinner used rats in his experiments, based off the findings of the animals, these two researchers concluded that all animals learn via these two mechanism of classical and operant conditioning. However, humans have way more complex brains, have different needs and different fears, meaning humans and rats may not always respond the same way stimuli . This is a weakness because it suggests the research lacks generalisability to humans.
Furthermore, the animal research has been considered unethical. e.g. In Skinner’s research, the rats were electrified which could have caused distress to the animals. This further weakens acceptance of the theory as it indicates the behaviourist approach used unethical methods to gather data.
Aim of Bandura’s experiment
To investigate whether behaviour is learnt through observation and imitation of role model
Method of Bandura’s experiment
-ppts: 72 (36 boys, 36 girls) children aged 3-6 years old
-Lab experiment
-Independent group design
Procedure of Bandura’s experiment (pt.1)
Explain non aggressive, aggressive and control group
Children were pretested for how aggressive they were through observation in their nursery on 4, 5 rating point scales. Children were then placed into one of 3 conditions; aggressive model, non aggressive model and a control group.
In the aggressive model condition children were exposed to a filmed model demonstrating aggressive behaviour towards the bobo doll.
In the non aggressive condition, children watched film of model playing with toys in presence of bobo doll
In the control group, children didnt watch any model and were not exposed to aggressive or non aggressive behaviour.
Procedure of Bandura’s experiment (pt.2)
Explain the frustration induction, aggressive arousal and observation
Frustration induction: After modelling, children taken to room with toys, but they were told that they cant play with these toys as they are for other children
Aggressive arousal: The children were then taken to another room with aggressive and non aggressive toys. The purpose was to arouse aggression in the children, regardless of their exposure to the model
Observation: Children were placed in a room containing a bobo doll. The children’s behaviour was then observed by observers (who didnt know the exposure the children had to aggressive model). They recorded the behaviours over a 20 minute period.
Results of Bandura’s experiment
-Boys imitated more physically aggressive behaviours than girls. Boys were also more likely to imitate the same sex role model than girls
-Children were more likely to imitate behaviours of the same sex role model
-Children exposed to aggressive model were more likely to reproduce aggressive behaviours, both verbally and physically towards the bobo doll in comparison to those who were shown non aggressive model or the control group.
-1/3 Children who observed the aggressive behaviour model repeated the models verbal responses - none of the children exposed to non aggressive model produced verbally aggressive remarks
Conclusion from Bandura’s experiment
Children learn behaviours through observing and imitating role models in a social context
(AO3)
Provide a strength of social learning theory
(Supporting research)
-One strength of Social learning theory is the existence of supporting research
-For example, Bandura (1961) studied whether behaviour is learned through imitation and observation of a role model in children. He exposed children aged 3-6 to aggressive and non aggressive adult models and found that children who were shown the aggressive models were more likely to reproduce the same observed aggressive behaviours.
-This suggests that children imitate role models, which is consistent with SLT. In this case, if the role modes are aggressive then the children were more likely to imitate that aggressive behaviour which has been observed
- Therefore, Bandura’s results increase the validity of the social learning theory as an explanation for behaviour and learning
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Outline one weakness of SLT
(biological differences)
-One weakness of SLT is that it ignores the impact of biological factors on social learning.
-For example, in Bandura’s study (1961), one consistent finding in the experiment was that boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls, thus suggesting boys are more aggressive than girls
-This suggests that hormonal factors such as differences in testosterone levels can influence levels of aggression. However this isn’t accounted for in the explanation proposed by SLT
-Therefore SLT can be criticised for only acknowledging the influence of ones environment in explaining how we learn and ignoring biological factors that could influence behaviour
Provide a strength of social learning theory
(acknowledges mediational processes)
One strength of the social learning theory is that it acknowledges mediational processes
For example, within mediational processes there are 4 different stages of reproducing the behaviour. This provides more insight and gives a deeper explanation as it takes into account thought processes.
Whereas the behaviourist approach only focuses on observable behaviour and ignores the influence of cognition on behaviour and the influence of thoughts on behaviour
Therefore, the social learning theory provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes.
AO3
Outline one weakness of SLT
(Cause and effect)
Point :One weakness of the social learning theory is that there is ambiguity when establishing causality of deviant behaviour.
Evidence: For example, SLT claims that increased identification with deviant peers increases the likelihood that an individual will adopt the same values and behaviours. Siegel and McCormick (2006) found that young people who posses deviant attitudes and values would seek out peers with similar attitudes and behaviours. This is due to the fact that they are more fun to be around as opposed to well behaved peers.
Explanation: This means that the causes of delinquency may not be due to identifying with a deviant role model and social learning but the possession of deviant attitudes prior to contact with deviant peers.
Link: Therefore, It cant establish the cause and effect between social learning theory and delinquent behaviour.
Explain schemas
Cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information in the brain. Schemas help an individual to make sense of new information. Package of information developed through experiences.
Advantages of Schemas
-Help us predict what will happen based on our prior experiences
-Allow us to process vast amounts of information rapidly
-Schemas prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
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Provide a strength of the cognitive approach (application to real life)
Point: One strength of the cognitive approach is that it has real world applications
Evidence: The cognitive approach has been used in psychopathology to explain faulty thinking processes. For example, depressed people have negative self schemas.
Explanation: Cognitive based therapies can be used to treat depression. These treatments have been shown effective in reducing rates of the disorder.
Link: Implies cognitive approach has real life applications. This strengthens our acceptance as it can positively impact society.
(AO3)
Outline a weakness of the cognitive approach
(MACHINE REDUCTIONISM)
Point: One limitation is the use of computer models.
Evidence: MSM, WMM
Explanation: The computer model has been criticised by many for being MACHINE REDUCTIONIST. It ignores the involvement of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information.
Link: Therefore this weakens the cognitive approach as it doesn’t take into account the complexity of the human mind
Outline a strength of the cognitive approach (scientific approach)
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2nd weakness of cognitive approach as a counter argument
Point: Scientific approach
Cognitive psychologists place an emphasis on scientific methods so it is objective. When variables are controlled during experiments, we can easily establish cause and effect.
Counter argument:
Studies conducted on the cognitive approach lack ecological validity. Most research comes from laboratory experiments during which participants were asked to do tasks which aren’t something you would do in everyday life. For example, memory task of remembering a list of words is not how everyday memory works. Artificial stimuli produce artificial behaviours
This invalidates the approach as it doesn’t take into account how people would behave in a real life setting
Outline the main assumptions of the biological approach
-Everything psychological has a biological basis
-Actions of our genes, hormones, neurotransmitters and neurochemical mechanisms must be understood in order to explain behaviour fully.
-All thoughts, ideas and cognitive processes must be biological in origin.
What is meant by genotype?
What is meant by phenotype?
-Genotype :Genetic code that is written in the DNA of an individuals cells
-Genetic make up on an individual
-Phenotype is the observable characteristics of an individual. Consequence of an interaction of the genotype with the environment
What is the parietal lobe responsible for?
Processing sensory information
What is the frontal lobe responsible for?
Decision making and language
What is the temporal lobe responsible for?
Involved with hearing and memory
What is the occipital lobe responsible for?
Processing visual information
(AO3)
Outline one strength of the biological approach
(Use of scientific methods)
-The biological approach uses scientific methods
-When investigating the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the biological approach uses MRI and PET scans. This suggests that the results are gathered through biological research are highly reliable.
-Therefore, these techniques have contributed to the scientific validity of the biological approach. This increases our acceptance of the biological approach as an explanation for human behaviour.
(AO3)
Outline one weakness of the biological approach
(Reductionist)
-The biological approach has been considered to be reductionist
-For example, the biological approach states complex human behaviour can be broken down and explained by genes, neurochemicals and hormones.
-Other factors such as up brining, environmental factors, emotional and cultural factors aren’t taken into consideration.
-Therefore, critics argue we cannot fully understand human behaviour without taking into consideration other factors when trying to understand the true causes of human behaviour.
(AO3)
Outline one strength of the biological approach
(Real life application)
-One strength of the biological approach is that its principles have been applied to processes in the real world.
-For example, through increased understanding of biochemical processes and examining those with neurochemical imbalances, psychoactive drugs can be produced to help the imbalances.
-This means the principles of the biological approach can be used to better the lives of individuals with imbalances.
-Therefore this increases the validity of the biological approach as an explanation for human behaviour
-However there are questions over if these drugs are beneficial for all patients
(AO3)
Outline one weakness of the biological approach
(Biological determinism)
One limitation of the biological approach is that it has been criticised for being deterministic.
For example the biological approach suggests that internal factors like genes, hormones and neurochemistry influence all behaviour beyond conscious control.
This means moral responsibility, particularly within the judicial system, is challenged.
Therefore, such biological determinism has potentially severe real life consequences which should be considered when explaining behaviour.
What are the 3 parts of the mind
Conscious- Part of our mind we are aware of.
Preconscious - Contains thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but we can access if desired
Unconscious - This drives the thoughts we are unaware of that have mostly developed in our childhood
Main assumptions of psychodynamic approach
-Freud believed behaviour was determined more by psychological factors rather than biological factors
-Freud assumed that people are born with basic instincts and needs
-Behaviour is largely controlled by the unconscious
Briefly describe one role of the unconscious mind according to the psychodynamic approach (2 marks)
The unconscious mind has a defense mechanism to protect us from traumatic experiences which could lead to anxiety
Outline the Id
-Pleasure principle
-Part of the unconscious mind
-Deals with feelings and needs, demands immediate gratification
-Formed from birth to 18 months
Outline features of the Ego
-This is our reality principle, mediates between the impulsive demands of Id and the super ego
-Uses defense mechanisms
-Part of our conscious mind
-Formed between 18 months and 3 years
Outline features of the super ego
-This is our morality principle
-Part of the unconscious mind
-Based on parental or societal values
-Formed between 3 and 6 years
Explain repression
-Involves unpleasant memories being kept from conscious awareness
-Repression can lead to unpleasant memories causing distress
-Causes people to have difficulty when accessing unpleasant memories
Explain displacement
-Taking out/shifting an emotion onto someone or something in the surroundings
-Unable to express the feelings in a normal way, so you shift the unpleasant emotion onto something else
Explain denial
-Refusing to acknowledge/accept reality
-Avoids having to deal with the unpleasant emotion that is associated with an event
-Act as though a traumatic event never happened
Describe the structure of the personality according to the psychodynamic approach (4 marks)
Personality has a tripartite structure. There are 3 parts; Id, ego and superego.
Firstly, the Id is our pleasure principle. It is our desires and is active in the unconscious mind. It forms between birth and 18 months.
Secondly there is the ego which is our reality principle. The ego is active in our unconscious mind and mediates our Id and superego. The ego forms between 3 and 6 years old.
Lastly there is the superego which is our morality principle and this is formed between 18 months and 3 years old. It is active in our unconscious mind. The superego forms from parental teachings and the environment.
Outline the oral stage in the psychosexual stages
0-1 years old
Focus is on mouth, thats how child expresses sexual energy
Therefore the mothers breasts is the focus of desire
Unresolved conflict in this stage can lead to oral fixation; smoking, biting nails and bad mouthing
Outline the anal stage in the psychosexual stages
1-3 years old
Focus of pleasure is on anus
Therefore child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
General age for children to learn toilet training
Unresolved conflict in this stage can lead to anal retentive -> perfectionism and OCD (dont like mess) and anal expulsive -> messy and thoughtless
Outline the phallic stage in the psychosexual stages
3-5 years old
Focus of pleasure is the genitals
At this age, children realise the differences between boys and girls
Children experience the Oedipus complex for boys and Electra complex for girls
Unresolved conflict in this stage can lead to narcissism, recklessness and possibly gay
Outline the latency stage
6-12 years old
The child develops a mastery of the world around them therefore previous conflicts are resolved/repressed and early years are largely forgotten
Outline the genital stage
12-adulthood
In this stage sexual desires become more conscious with the onset of puberty
This eventually directs individuals to sex and the beginnings of adult life
Unresolved conflict in this stage can lead to difficulty in forming heterosexual relationships
(AO3)
Outline one strength of the psychodynamic approach
(Practical applications, accessing the unconscious mind)
One strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it has practical applications which have provided us with techniques TO ACCESS THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND.
For example, techniques such as hypnosis and dream analysis have been used to deal with neurosis. De Maat et found that psychoanalysis techniques have been used to produce significant improvements in symptoms.
This suggests that the psychodynamic approach has enabled us to develop successful treatments which are effective and long lasting, improving an individuals quality of life.
Therefore, this increased credibility strengthens our acceptance of the psychodynamic approach as an explanation for human behaviour.
(AO3)
One weakness of the psychodynamic approach
(Based on untestable concepts)
One limitation of the psychodynamic approach is that it is based on untestable concepts.
For example, Karl Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach doesn’t meet the criterion of falsification as it lies in the unconscious mind. For example, the key concept of the unconscious mind and its influence on human behaviour..
This means that we cannot empirically test Freud’s concepts because they are in the unconscious mind.
Therefore, critics may argue that the psychodynamic approach lacks objectivity and thus discredits psychology as a science.
(AO3)
One strength of the psychodynamic approach
(Little Hans)
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One strength of the psychodynamic approach is that there is supporting evidence from the case study of Little Hans
For example, little Hans had a fear of horses when he was 5 years old. Hans also had hatred towards his father and sister as they would occupy his mother’s attention, suggesting he was experiencing the Oedipus complex. Freud suggested that Hans had an unconscious fear of his father but that fear had been redirected at horses, which is an example of displacement. This is a strength because it clearly indicates that Hans was in the Phallic stage and fit the model at his given age, meaning that Freud’s psychosexual stages can be seen in real life development of children, as proposed by the theory, thus strengthening acceptance of the theory
HOWEVER, this was a case study meaning that there is low generalisability to the wider population. Evidence of the stages in one individual doesn’t mean everyone else experiences the same thing, thus indicating that the psychosexual stages may not be generalisable to the wider population, as it was conducted on only one person.
Furthermore, the research was gathered using a self report method from Hans’ father meaning the responses may not be objective as it is not based on empirical evidence, which reduces validity of the supporting research evidence into the psychosexual stages of development
(AO3)
One weakness of the psychodynamic approach
(Gender bias)
One weakness of the psychodynamic approach is that it has been criticised for being gender bias.
For example, Freud’s theories on sexuality focus on male sexuality and not female sexuality. His case studies were only performed on men.
This suggests that his theories cannot be applied to females as his views on female sexuality are less developed compared to male sexuality.
Therefore, critics argue that the psychodynamic approach cannot be applied to females until there is research and more development about the difference of male and female sexuality .
3 limitations of the little Hans study
- Low generalisability
- Self report method
- Does not establish cause and effect
Outline the main assumptions of the humanistic approach.
-All humans have free will and are in control of our own development ignoring the influence of external factors on human behaviour.
-Each person is a rational and conscious being
-Humans should be viewed as a whole and not reduced to components.
-Each person is unique and thus this is a person centred approach.
Outline the 5 stages of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Physiological needs
Safety
Love/belonging
Esteem
Self actualisation
Explain the concept of self actualisation
-Innate desire to grow psychologically and fulfil ones potential
-Those who attainted self actualisation are; Creative, accepting of other people and have an accurate perception of the world around them
-Maslow said there are psychological barriers to self actualisation
Outline Roger’s theory of Congruence
When you perceive yourself to be similar to your ideal self
Greater congruence leads to greater feelings of self worth
Outline Roger’s theory of Incongruence
There is a difference between the self and the ideal self.
If there is a big gap between the two selves then the person will have negative feelings of self worth
Outline Roger’s theory of ‘The self’
-Our personal identity
-People have two basic needs; Positive regards from others and Feelings of self-worth
-Feelings of self-worth develop in childhood are formed as a result of the child’s interactions with parents
-Interactions with others influence a person’s feelings of self-worth
-How we perceive ourselves is important in determining psychological health
Dominic is unhappy and lacks confidence. He also thinks he is not very good-looking and not very clever. He goes to a counselling therapist for help. The therapist suggests that Dominic lacks congruence.
Outline what is meant by ‘congruence’. Explain one way in which Dominic might achieve ‘congruence’. (4 marks)
Congruence is the comparability/ consistency between the perceived self (how you see yourself) and the ideal self (the self you would like to be).
Dominic needs to close the gap/discrepancy between his perceived and his ideal self
The gap can be reduced/closed if he develops a more healthy view of himself, or, has a more achievable and realistic ideal self – unconditional positive regard from the therapist is an example of a specific strategy here.
Referring to two assumptions of the humanistic approach, explain why humanistic psychologists have rejected the scientific method.
(Total 4 marks)
Each person can exercise free will – the explanation might focus on the principle of determinism in science.
Each person is a rational and conscious being and not dominated by unconscious
primitive instincts – the explanation might focus on the principles of determinism and reductionism in science.
Outline Rogerian therapy
-Tackle feelings of worthlessness and low self esteem
-Aims to reduce the gap between the self and the ideal self
-Therapists acts as guides or facilitators to help people understand themselves and find way to enable their potential for self actualisation
-Discuss the clients conditions of worth
Outline the humanistic approach
One assumption of the humanistic approach is that humans should be viewed as a whole and they shouldn’t be broken down into different components and everyone is unique. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has 5 stages, physiological needs, safety, love/belonging, esteem and self actualisation.
The hierarchy describes a humans needs from least to most important. Self actualisation is the highest point. It is when you become the best version of yourselves, to reach this stage you must fulfil all the previous stages. Roger proposed the self. How we view ourselves and self esteem. This links to congruence which is when your current self is similar to your ideal self. Higher congruence = Higher self esteem. Vice versa. Roger proposed conditions of self worth. If there are little to no conditions of worth then self actualisation cannot be fulfilled.
(AO3)
One strength of the humanistic approach
(Support of key concepts, Harter et al)
There is supporting research.
Harter et al found that teenagers who feel they have to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain their parents approval frequently end up not liking themselves, an inability to self actualise lead to depression.
This suggests those who experience self worth will change themselves to fulfil certain conditions. This lead to them having negative feelings of themselves leading to such individuals having the inability to fulfil their need of self esteem and thus self actualise as Maslow suggests.
Therefore this increases validity, thus strengthening our acceptance of the theory
(AO3)
One weakness of the humanistic approach
(Based on untestable concepts)
One weakness of the humanistic approach is that it has been criticised for being based on untestable concepts.
For example you cant know how close you are to your ideal self (congruence is subjective) as you dont know what the best version of ones self can be. This is untestable. Maslow’s concept of self actualisation cannot be objectively measured due to individual differences.
This means we cannot carry out research on the humanistic approach and cannot gather empirical evidence.
Therefore, this weakens our acceptance of the theory as a lack of empirical evidence decreases credibility.
(AO3)
One strength of the humanistic approach
(Holistic approach)
One strength of the humanistic approach is that it is holistic
For example, the behaviourist approach reduces behaviour to stimulus and response and the biological approach reduces behaviour to hormones, genes and neurotransmitters. The humanistic approach considers humans as a whole, subjectively.
This suggests that the humanistic approach is more person centred when it comes to explaining human behaviour rather than reducing behaviour to single factors.
Therefore, this increases validity thus strengthening our acceptance of the theory as it views human behaviour within a real life context.
(AO3)
One weakness of the humanistic approach
(Culture bias)
One weakness of the humanistic approach is that it has been criticised for being culturally bias.
Research suggests that in China, belongingness needs were seen as more important than physiological needs. Self actualisation was defined more by contributions to the community rather than individual development.
This suggests that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs may differ across different cultures as not all cultures may readily accept this key concept.
Therefore, the humanistic approach cannot be generalised to different cultures as it is doesn’t take into account different cultural values and needs
What is meant by meditational processes?
The mental processes that determine whether or not we imitate a role model’s behaviour.
They are:
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Describe psychosexual stages as outlined in the psychodynamic approach (6)
There are five developmental stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital)
- oral (0–1yr) – the focus of pleasure is the mouth and the mother’s breast is the focus of desire, unresolved conflict can lead to oral fixation
- anal (1–3yrs) – the focus of pleasure is the anus and the child focuses on withholding and expelling faeces. This can lead to OCD or messiness, depending if the child is anal retentive or anal expulsive
- phallic (3–5yrs) – the focus of pleasure is genitals and children experience the Oedipus/Electra complex
- latency (6–12yrs) – previous conflicts are resolved/repressed and early years are largely forgotten
- genital (12yrs/puberty-adulthood) – sexual desires become conscious with the onset of puberty
- there is an unconscious conflict at each stage which must be resolved before the next stage is reached.
