Approaches

Question 1

Explain what is meant by classical conditioning

Answer 1

A type of learning that occurs through associations being made between the unconditioned response and the neutral stimulus.

Question 2

Explain classical conditioning in Pavlov’s experiment

Answer 2

Before conditioning, the dog would salivate when food was presented in front of it. When a bell sound was heard by the dog it had no observable effect.
Pavlov then placed the food in front of the dog but also paired it the a bell sound, and this was repeated.
The dog then made the connection of the food and the bell so that when just the bell sound was heard, the dog began to salivate. The neutral stimulus

Question 3

What are the main assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 3

-We learn through associations between stimuli in our environment and our responses to them (classical conditioning) or the consequences of our behaviour (operant conditioning)
-Behaviour is learnt through environment, therefore it can be unlearnt
- Ignores mental processes
-Learning can be generalised across species

Question 4

Explain operant conditioning

Answer 4

-A type of learning where behaviour is acquired and maintained based on its consequences.
-Reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observed behaviour being repeated, whilst punishment (an unpleasant consequence of behaviour) decreases this likelihood.

Question 5

Explain positive reinforcement

Answer 5

Providing a reward or pleasant consequence when a particular behaviour is performed
This is done to encourage the behaviour so that it can be repeated in the future

Question 6

Explain negative reinforcement

Answer 6

When your actions stop a negative stimulus. Increases reinforcement
E.g.
Your mum shouts at you to clean your room so you clean it and she stops shouting

Question 7

Explain positive punishment

Answer 7

Providing an unpleasant consequence after a behaviour is displayed. This is done to discourage the behaviour so that it can be reduced in the future
E.g.
A child talks in class so teacher gives them extra homework

Question 8

Explain negative punishment

Answer 8

-When you remove the positive stimulus

Question 9

Explain Skinners box experiment

Answer 9

-The rat moves around the cage and accidentally presses the lever- which releases food (the reinforcer)
-The rat then continues to press the lever in order to obtain food as a positive consequence
-If the food pallets stop, the rat presses the lever a few more times and the abandons it

This validates the behaviourist approach as it clearly provides an explanation for how we learn behaviour through consequences

Question 10

Aim of Bandura’s experiment

Answer 10

To investigate whether behaviour is learnt through observation and imitation of role model

Question 11

Method of Bandura’s experiment

Answer 11

-ppts: 72 (36 boys, 36 girls) children aged 3-6 years old
-Lab experiment
-Independent group design

Question 12

Procedure of Bandura’s experiment (pt.1)

Explain non aggressive, aggressive and control group

Answer 12

Children were pretested for how aggressive they were through observation in their nursery on 4, 5 rating point scales. Children were then placed into one of 3 conditions; aggressive model, non aggressive model and a control group.
In the aggressive model condition children were exposed to a filmed model demonstrating aggressive behaviour towards the bobo doll.
In the non aggressive condition, children watched film of model playing with toys in presence of bobo doll
In the control group, children didnt watch any model and were not exposed to aggressive or non aggressive behaviour.

Question 13

Procedure of Bandura’s experiment (pt.2)

Explain the frustration induction, aggressive arousal and observation

Answer 13

Frustration induction: After modelling, children taken to room with toys, but they were told that they cant play with these toys as they are for other children

Aggressive arousal: The children were then taken to another room with aggressive and non aggressive toys. The purpose was to arouse aggression in the children, regardless of their exposure to the model

Observation: Children were placed in a room containing a bobo doll. The children’s behaviour was then observed by observers (who didnt know the exposure the children had to aggressive model). They recorded the behaviours over a 20 minute period.

Question 14

Results of Bandura’s experiment

Answer 14

-Boys imitated more physically aggressive behaviours than girls. Boys were also more likely to imitate the same sex role model than girls

-Children were more likely to imitate behaviours of the same sex role model

-Children exposed to aggressive model were more likely to reproduce aggressive behaviours, both verbally and physically towards the bobo doll in comparison to those who were shown non aggressive model or the control group.

-1/3 Children who observed the aggressive behaviour model repeated the models verbal responses - none of the children exposed to non aggressive model produced verbally aggressive remarks

Question 15

Conclusion from Bandura’s experiment

Answer 15

Children learn behaviours through observing and imitating role models in a social context

Question 16

(AO3)
Provide a strength of social learning theory

(Supporting research)

Answer 16

-One strength of Social learning theory is the existence of supporting research

-For example, Bandura (1961) studied whether behaviour is learned through imitation and observation of a role model in children. He exposed children aged 3-6 to aggressive and non aggressive adult models and found that children who were shown the aggressive models were more likely to reproduce the same observed aggressive behaviours.

-This suggests that children imitate role models, which is consistent with SLT. In this case, if the role modes are aggressive then the children were more likely to imitate that aggressive behaviour which has been observed

• Therefore, Bandura’s results increase the validity of the social learning theory as an explanation for behaviour and learning

Question 17

AO3
Outline one weakness of SLT
(biological differences)

Answer 17

-One weakness of SLT is that it ignores the impact of biological factors on social learning.

-For example, in Bandura’s study (1961), one consistent finding in the experiment was that boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls, thus suggesting boys are more aggressive than girls

-This suggests that hormonal factors such as differences in testosterone levels can influence levels of aggression. However this isn’t accounted for in the explanation proposed by SLT

-Therefore SLT can be criticised for only acknowledging the influence of ones environment in explaining how we learn and ignoring biological factors that could influence behaviour

Question 18

Provide a strength of social learning theory

(acknowledges mediational processes)

Answer 18

One strength of the social learning theory is that it acknowledges mediational processes

For example, within mediational processes there are 4 different stages of reproducing the behaviour. This provides more insight and gives a deeper explanation as it takes into account thought processes.

Whereas the behaviourist approach only focuses on observable behaviour and ignores the influence of cognition on behaviour and the influence of thoughts on behaviour

Therefore, the social learning theory provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes.

Question 19

AO3
Outline one weakness of SLT
(Cause and effect)

Answer 19

Point :One weakness of the social learning theory is that there is ambiguity when establishing causality of deviant behaviour.

Evidence: For example, SLT claims that increased identification with deviant peers increases the likelihood that an individual will adopt the same values and behaviours. Siegel and McCormick (2006) found that young people who posses deviant attitudes and values would seek out peers with similar attitudes and behaviours. This is due to the fact that they are more fun to be around as opposed to well behaved peers.

Explanation: This means that the causes of delinquency may not be due to identifying with a deviant role model and social learning but the possession of deviant attitudes prior to contact with deviant peers.

Link: Therefore, It cant establish the cause and effect between social learning theory and delinquent behaviour.

Question 20

Explain schemas

Answer 20

Cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information in the brain. Schemas help an individual to make sense of new information. Package of information developed through experiences.

Question 21

Advantages of Schemas

Answer 21

-Help us predict what will happen based on our prior experiences

-Allow us to process vast amounts of information rapidly

-Schemas prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli

Question 22

(AO3)
Provide a strength of the cognitive approach (application to real life)

Answer 22

Point: One strength of the cognitive approach is that it has real world applications

Evidence: The cognitive approach has been used in psychopathology to explain faulty thinking processes. For example, depressed people have negative self schemas.

Explanation: Cognitive based therapies can be used to treat depression. These treatments have been shown effective in reducing rates of the disorder.

Link: Implies cognitive approach has real life applications. This strengthens our acceptance as it can positively impact society.

Question 23

(AO3)
Outline a weakness of the cognitive approach
(MACHINE REDUCTIONISM)

Answer 23

Point: One limitation is the use of computer models.

Evidence: MSM, WMM

Explanation: The computer model has been criticised by many for being MACHINE REDUCTIONIST. It ignores the involvement of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information.

Link: Therefore this weakens the cognitive approach as it doesn’t take into account the complexity of the human mind

Question 24

Outline a strength of the cognitive approach (scientific approach)
+
2nd weakness of cognitive approach as a counter argument

Answer 24

Point: Scientific approach

Explanation: Cognitive psychologists place and emphasis on scientific methods so it is objective. When variables are controlled during experiments, we can easily establish cause and effect.

Counter argument:

Point: Studies conducted on the cognitive approach lack ecological validity

Explanation: Most research comes from laboratory experiments during which participants were asked to do tasks which aren’t something you would do in everyday life.

Evidence: For example, memory task of remembering a list of words is not how everyday memory works. Artificial stimuli produce artificial behaviours

Link: This invalidates the approach as it doesn’t take into account how people would behave in a real life setting

Question 25

Outline the main assumptions of the biological approach

Answer 25

-Everything psychological has a biological basis
-Actions of our genes, hormones, neurotransmitters and neurochemical mechanisms must be understood in order to explain behaviour fully.
-All thoughts, ideas and cognitive processes must be biological in origin.

Question 26

What is meant by genotype?

What is meant by phenotype?

Answer 26

-Genotype :Genetic code that is written in the DNA of an individuals cells
-Genetic make up on an individual

-Phenotype is the observable characteristics of an individual. Consequence of an interaction of the genotype with the environment

Question 27

What is the parietal lobe responsible for?

Answer 27

Processing sensory information

Question 28

What is the frontal lobe responsible for?

Answer 28

Decision making and language

Question 29

What is the temporal lobe responsible for?

Answer 29

Involved with hearing and memory

Question 30

What is the occipital lobe responsible for?

Answer 30

Processing visual information

Question 31

(AO3)
Outline one strength of the biological approach
(Use of scientific methods)

Answer 31

-The biological approach uses scientific methods
-When investigating the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the biological approach uses MRI and PET scans. This suggests that the results are gathered through biological research are highly reliable.
-Therefore, these techniques have contributed to the scientific validity of the biological approach. This increases our acceptance of the biological approach as an explanation for human behaviour.

Question 32

(AO3)
Outline one weakness of the biological approach
(Reductionist)

Answer 32

-The biological approach has been considered to be reductionist
-For example, the biological approach states complex human behaviour can be broken down and explained by genes, neurochemicals and hormones.
-Other factors such as up brining, environmental factors, emotional and cultural factors aren’t taken into consideration.
-Therefore, critics argue we cannot fully understand human behaviour without taking into consideration other factors when trying to understand the true causes of human behaviour.

Question 33

(AO3)
Outline one strength of the biological approach
(Real life application)

Answer 33

-One strength of the biological approach is that its principles have been applied to processes in the real world.
-For example, through increased understanding of biochemical processes and examining those with neurochemical imbalances, psychoactive drugs can be produced to help the imbalances.
-This means the principles of the biological approach can be used to better the lives of individuals with imbalances.
-Therefore this increases the validity of the biological approach as an explanation for human behaviour
-However there are questions over if these drugs are beneficial for all patients

Question 34

(AO3)
Outline one weakness of the biological approach
(Biological determinism)

Answer 34

One limitation of the biological approach is that it has been criticised for being deterministic.
For example the biological approach suggests that internal factors like genes, hormones and neurochemistry influence all behaviour beyond conscious control.
This means moral responsibility, particularly within the judicial system, is challenged.
Therefore, such biological determinism has potentially severe real life consequences which should be considered when explaining behaviour.

Question 35

What are the 3 parts of the mind

Answer 35

Conscious- Part of our mind we are aware of.
Preconscious - Contains thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but we can access if desired
Unconscious - This drives the thoughts we are unaware of that have mostly developed in our childhood

Question 36

Main assumptions of psychodynamic approach

Answer 36

-Freud believed behaviour was determined more by psychological factors rather than biological factors
-Freud assumed that people are born with basic instincts and needs
-Behaviour is largely controlled by the unconscious

Question 37

Briefly describe one role of the unconscious mind according to the psychodynamic approach (2 marks)

Answer 37

The unconscious mind has a defense mechanism to protect us from traumatic experiences which could lead to anxiety

Question 38

Outline the Id

Answer 38

-Pleasure principle
-Part of the unconscious mind
-Deals with feelings and needs, demands immediate gratification
-Formed from birth to 18 months

Question 39

Outline features of the Ego

Answer 39

-This is our reality principle, mediates between the impulsive demands of Id and the super ego
-Uses defense mechanisms
-Part of our conscious mind
-Formed between 18 months and 3 years

Question 40

Outline features of the super ego

Answer 40

-This is our morality principle
-Part of the unconscious mind
-Based on parental or societal values
-Formed between 3 and 6 years

Question 41

Explain repression

Answer 41

-Involves unpleasant memories being kept from conscious awareness
-Repression can lead to unpleasant memories causing distress
-Causes people to have difficulty when accessing unpleasant memories

Question 42

Explain displacement

Answer 42

-Taking out/shifting an emotion onto someone or something in the surroundings
-Unable to express the feelings in a normal way, so you shift the unpleasant emotion onto something else

Question 43

Explain denial

Answer 43

-Refusing to acknowledge/accept reality
-Avoids having to deal with the unpleasant emotion that is associated with an event
-Act as though a traumatic event never happened

Question 44

Describe the structure of the personality according to the psychodynamic approach (4 marks)

Answer 44

Personality has a tripartite structure. There are 3 parts; Id, ego and superego.
Firstly, the Id is our pleasure principle. It is our desires and is active in the unconscious mind. It forms between birth and 18 months.
Secondly there is the ego which is our reality principle. The ego is active in our unconscious mind and mediates our Id and superego. The ego forms between 3 and 6 years old.
Lastly there is the superego which is our morality principle and this is formed between 18 months and 3 years old. It is active in our unconscious mind. The superego forms from parental teachings and the environment.

Question 45

Outline the oral stage in the psychosexual stages

Answer 45

0-1 years old
Focus is on mouth, thats how child expresses sexual energy
Therefore the mothers breasts is the focus of desire
Unresolved conflict in this stage can lead to oral fixation; smoking, biting nails and bad mouthing

Question 46

Outline the anal stage in the psychosexual stages

Answer 46

1-3 years old
Focus of pleasure is on anus
Therefore child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
General age for children to learn toilet training
Unresolved conflict in this stage can lead to anal retentive -> perfectionism and OCD (dont like mess) and anal expulsive -> messy and thoughtless

Question 47

Outline the phallic stage in the psychosexual stages

Answer 47

3-5 years old
Focus of pleasure is the genitals
At this age, children realise the differences between boys and girls
Children experience the Oedipus complex for boys and Electra complex for girls
Unresolved conflict in this stage can lead to narcissism, recklessness and possibly gay

Question 48

Outline the latency stage

Answer 48

6-12 years old
The child develops a mastery of the world around them therefore previous conflicts are resolved/repressed and early years are largely forgotten

Question 49

Outline the genital stage

Answer 49

12-adulthood
In this stage sexual desires become more conscious with the onset of puberty
This eventually directs individuals to sex and the beginnings of adult life
Unresolved conflict in this stage can lead to difficulty in forming heterosexual relationships

Question 50

(AO3)
Outline one strength of the psychodynamic approach
(Practical applications, accessing the unconscious mind)

Answer 50

One strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it has practical applications which have provided us with techniques TO ACCESS THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND.

For example, techniques such as hypnosis and dream analysis have been used to deal with neurosis. De Maat et found that psychoanalysis techniques have been used to produce significant improvements in symptoms.

This suggests that the psychodynamic approach has enabled us to develop successful treatments which are effective and long lasting, improving an individuals quality of life.

Therefore, this increased credibility strengthens our acceptance of the psychodynamic approach as an explanation for human behaviour.

Question 51

(AO3)
One weakness of the psychodynamic approach
(Based on untestable concepts)

Answer 51

One limitation of the psychodynamic approach is that it is based on untestable concepts.

For example, Karl Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach doesn’t meet the criterion of falsification as it lies in the unconscious mind. For example, the key concept of the unconscious mind and its influence on human behaviour..

This means that we cannot empirically test Freud’s concepts because they are in the unconscious mind.

Therefore, critics may argue that the psychodynamic approach lacks objectivity and thus discredits psychology as a science.

Question 52

(AO3)
One strength of the psychodynamic approach
(Hamlet)

Answer 52

One strength of the psychodynamic approach is its comprehensive nature in explaining behaviour.

For example, using psychoanalysis we are able to explain and understand other aspects of human behaviour. In Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, it has been suggested that Hamlet’s mind is a projection of Shakespeare’s mind.

This suggests that through the psychodynamic approach we are able to explain aspects of human behaviour and gain valuable insights into complex behaviour.

Therefore, this increases the validity of the psychodynamic approach in understanding and explaining behaviour.

Question 53

(AO3)
One weakness of the psychodynamic approach
(Gender bias)

Answer 53

One weakness of the psychodynamic approach is that it has been criticised for being gender bias.

For example, Freud’s theories on sexuality focus on male sexuality and not female sexuality. His case studies were only performed on men.

This suggests that his theories cannot be applied to females as his views on female sexuality are less developed compared to male sexuality.

Therefore, critics argue that the psychodynamic approach cannot be applied to females until there is research and more development about the difference of male and female sexuality .

Question 54

Outline the main assumptions of the humanistic approach.

Answer 54

-All humans have free will and are in control of our own development ignoring the influence of external factors on human behaviour.
-Each person is a rational and conscious being
-Humans should be viewed as a whole and not reduced to components.
-Each person is unique and thus this is a person centred approach.

Question 55

Outline the 5 stages of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Answer 55

Physiological needs
Safety
Love/belonging
Esteem
Self actualisation

Question 56

Explain the concept of self actualisation

Answer 56

-Innate desire to grow psychologically and fulfil ones potential
-Those who attainted self actualisation are; Creative, accepting of other people and have an accurate perception of the world around them
-Maslow said there are psychological barriers to self actualisation

Question 57

Outline Roger’s theory of Congruence

Answer 57

When you perceive yourself to be similar to your ideal self
Greater congruence leads to greater feelings of self worth

Question 58

Outline Roger’s theory of Incongruence

Answer 58

There is a difference between the self and the ideal self.
If there is a big gap between the two selves then the person will have negative feelings of self worth

Question 59

Outline Roger’s theory of ‘The self’

Answer 59

-Our personal identity
-People have two basic needs; Positive regards from others and Feelings of self-worth
-Feelings of self-worth develop in childhood are formed as a result of the child’s interactions with parents
-Interactions with others influence a person’s feelings of self-worth
-How we perceive ourselves is important in determining psychological health

Question 60

Dominic is unhappy and lacks confidence. He also thinks he is not very good-looking and not very clever. He goes to a counselling therapist for help. The therapist suggests that Dominic lacks congruence.

Outline what is meant by ‘congruence’. Explain one way in which Dominic might achieve ‘congruence’. (4 marks)

Answer 60

Congruence is the comparability/ consistency between the perceived self (how you see yourself) and the ideal self (the self you would like to be).

Dominic needs to close the gap/discrepancy between his perceived and his ideal self

The gap can be reduced/closed if he develops a more healthy view of himself, or, has a more achievable and realistic ideal self – unconditional positive regard from the therapist is an example of a specific strategy here.

Question 61

Referring to two assumptions of the humanistic approach, explain why humanistic psychologists have rejected the scientific method.
(Total 4 marks)

Answer 61

Each person can exercise free will – the explanation might focus on the principle of determinism in science.

Each person is a rational and conscious being and not dominated by unconscious
primitive instincts – the explanation might focus on the principles of determinism and reductionism in science.

Question 62

Outline Rogerian therapy

Answer 62

-Tackle feelings of worthlessness and low self esteem
-Aims to reduce the gap between the self and the ideal self
-Therapists acts as guides or facilitators to help people understand themselves and find way to enable their potential for self actualisation
-Discuss the clients conditions of worth

Question 63

Outline the humanistic approach

Answer 63

One assumption of the humanistic approach is that humans should be viewed as a whole and they shouldn’t be broken down into different components and everyone is unique. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has 5 stages, physiological needs, safety, love/belonging, esteem and self actualisation.
The hierarchy describes a humans needs from least to most important. Self actualisation is the highest point. It is when you become the best version of yourselves, to reach this stage you must fulfil all the previous stages. Roger proposed the self. How we view ourselves and self esteem. This links to congruence which is when your current self is similar to your ideal self. Higher congruence = Higher self esteem. Vice versa. Roger proposed conditions of self worth. If there are little to no conditions of worth then self actualisation cannot be fulfilled.

Question 64

(AO3)
One strength of the humanistic approach
(Support of key concepts, Harter et al)

Answer 64

There is supporting research.

Harter et al found that teenagers who feel they have to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain their parents approval frequently end up not liking themselves, an inability to self actualise lead to depression.

This suggests those who experience self worth will change themselves to fulfil certain conditions. This lead to them having negative feelings of themselves leading to such individuals having the inability to fulfil their need of self esteem and thus self actualise as Maslow suggests.

Therefore this increases validity, thus strengthening our acceptance of the theory

Question 65

(AO3)
One weakness of the humanistic approach
(Based on untestable concepts)

Answer 65

One weakness of the humanistic approach is that it has been criticised for being based on untestable concepts.

For example you cant know how close you are to your ideal self (congruence is subjective) as you dont know what the best version of ones self can be. This is untestable. Maslow’s concept of self actualisation cannot be objectively measured due to individual differences.

This means we cannot carry out research on the humanistic approach and cannot gather empirical evidence.

Therefore, this weakens our acceptance of the theory as a lack of empirical evidence decreases credibility.

Question 66

(AO3)
One strength of the humanistic approach
(Holistic approach)

Answer 66

One strength of the humanistic approach is that it is holistic

For example, the behaviourist approach reduces behaviour to stimulus and response and the biological approach reduces behaviour to hormones, genes and neurotransmitters. The humanistic approach considers humans as a whole, subjectively.

This suggests that the humanistic approach is more person centred when it comes to explaining human behaviour rather than reducing behaviour to single factors.

Therefore, this increases validity thus strengthening our acceptance of the theory as it views human behaviour within a real life context.

Question 67

(AO3)
One weakness of the humanistic approach
(Culture bias)

Answer 67

One weakness of the humanistic approach is that it has been criticised for being culturally bias.

Research suggests that in China, belongingness needs were seen as more important than physiological needs. Self actualisation was defined more by contributions to the community rather than individual development.

This suggests that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs may differ across different cultures as not all cultures may readily accept this key concept.

Therefore, the humanistic approach cannot be generalised to different cultures as it is doesn’t take into account different cultural values and needs

Question 68

What is meant by meditational processes?

Answer 68

The mental processes that determine whether or not we imitate a role model’s behaviour.
They are:
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation

Question 69

Describe psychosexual stages as outlined in the psychodynamic approach (6)

Answer 69

There are five developmental stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital)

• oral (0–1yr) – the focus of pleasure is the mouth and the mother’s breast is the focus of desire, unresolved conflict can lead to oral fixation
• anal (1–3yrs) – the focus of pleasure is the anus and the child focuses on withholding and expelling faeces. This can lead to OCD or messiness, depending if the child is anal retentive or anal expulsive
• phallic (3–5yrs) – the focus of pleasure is genitals and children experience the Oedipus/Electra complex
• latency (6–12yrs) – previous conflicts are resolved/repressed and early years are largely forgotten
• genital (12yrs/puberty-adulthood) – sexual desires become conscious with the onset of puberty
• there is an unconscious conflict at each stage which must be resolved before the next stage is reached.