Memory

Question 1

Outline the difference between the capacity of short-term memory and the capacity of long-term memory. (2 marks)

Answer 1

Short term memory’s capacity is 7+- 2 (millers magic number)
Long term memory’s capacity is potentially unlimited.

Question 2

How is STM encoded?

Answer 2

Acoustically - refers to the sound of the word

Question 3

How is LTM encoded?

Answer 3

Semantically - refers to meaning of the word

Question 4

What were the 4 groups in Baddley’s research?

Answer 4

Group1 - acoustically similar
Group 2 - acoustically dissimilar
Group 3 - semantically similar
Group 4 - semantically dissimilar

Question 5

What were the findings of Baddley’s research for LTM? +explanation.

Answer 5

LTM: When asked to remember words after a longer period of time, they did worse with semantically similar words this indicates we code semantically.

Explanation: This is because the words that have similar meanings are competing for space in the LTM and may have become distorted or confused as they all have the same meaning.

Question 6

What were the findings of Baddley’s research for STM? + explanation.

Answer 6

STM: When participants were asked to recall words directly after they heard them they had poorer recall or words which were acoustically similar compared to words which were acoustically dissimilar.

Explanation : We are more likely to become confused with similar sounding words because they sound similar. Words become distorted in the STM .

Question 7

AO3
Give one strength of research into duration
(Bahrick et al)

Answer 7

-Use of meaningful stimuli
-Real life memories were studied as ppts were asked to recall names which is something we do in everyday life and is a real representation of how our LTM works
-These findings have high ecological validity because they can be generalised to real life.
-Strengthens our acceptance of the research

Question 8

One weakness of Peterson and Peterson’s research into duration

Answer 8

-Research is artificial
-Ppts were asked to recall consonant symbol triagrams.
-This is a weakness because the stimuli is artificial
-This doesn’t represent how our memory works in real life scenarios
-In everyday life we dont use our memories to learn random syllables
-Therefore we should accept the findings from Peterson and Peterson with some caution and more meaningful stimuli should be used to to test STM

Question 9

What were Baddley’s conclusions?

Answer 9

Information is coded acoustically in the STM and semantically in the LTM.

Question 10

Describe Peterson and Peterson’s research

Answer 10

-Lab experiment
-24 participants
- triagrams were presented 1 at a time to the participants and had to be recalled after intervals of 3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds in each trial
- after hearing the triagram they were asked to count backwards in 3s out loud from a specified random digit number until they saw a red paper
- This is known as the Peterson technique which is aimed TO PREVENT REHEARSAL

Question 11

Explain semantic memory

Answer 11

-Contains our knowledge of the world, includes facts about everything
-Memories are not time stamped
-Not as personal
e.g. meaning of words

Question 12

Explain procedural memory

Answer 12

-Muscle memory
-Recall these memories without conscious awareness
-Almost automatic
-These memories are taught
-Not time stamped
e.g. how to ride a bike

Question 13

Explain episodic memory

Answer 13

-Events/stuff that happened in our lives
-Time stamped (you know when they happened)
-You make a conscious effort to remember them (declarative memory)
-You remember specific details, context and emotion.

Question 14

What is a declarative and non-declarative memory?

Answer 14

-Declarative = The recall requires conscious effort to retrieve information
-Non-declarative = The recall doesn’t require conscious effort to retrieve information

Question 15

Explain primacy effect (MSM)

Answer 15

Occurs because this information was the first to be rehearsed and transferred to LTM

Question 16

Explain recency effect (MSM)

Answer 16

Recency effect occurs because this information is the last information to be presented therefore these are the words that are remembered.

Question 17

AO3
Outline one strength of MSM
(CW)

Answer 17

One strength of MSM is that there is research support from Clive wearing (CW). For example, CW didnt have the rehearsal mechanisms which transfers information from STM to LTM. This suggests there are two different stores and also a process that transfersinformation from one strore to another, which is what coincides with the principles of MSM, thus strenghtening acceptance of the theory.

Question 18

AO3
Outline one weakness of LTM
(Types of LTM)

Answer 18

One weakness of LTM is that it lacks detail.
For example, patient CW had problems with LTM but still had procedural memory as he could still play the piano but he couldn’t remember his own children’s names. This evidence undermimes MSM explanation as it appears that there must be more tyepes of LTM which are not considered by LTM, thus weakening acceptance of the theory.

Question 19

How do brain scans provide evidence for different types of LTM?

Answer 19

-Different areas of the brain are active when different kinds of LTM are active
-Episodic memory is associated with frontal lobe
-Procedural memory is associated with cerebellum and motor cortex
-Semantic memory relies on Temporal lobe

Scans are objective and factual meaning this strengthens our acceptance of types of LTM

Question 20

Give features of the Episodic buffer in WMM

Answer 20

-Acts as a general store for central executive
-Temporary store that integrates visual, spatial and verbal info from other slave systems
-Links working memory to LTM

Question 21

How does research from brain scans make acceptance of MSM stronger?

Answer 21

Beardsly found that prefrontal cortex is active during STM tasks but not LTM tasks

Squire found that hippocampus is active during LTM task but not STM task

This provides evidence for the existence of different memory stores as suggested by MSM

Question 22

How does research from brain scans provide evidence for different types of LTM?

Answer 22

Episodic - Hippocampus and frontal lobe
Semantic - Temporal lobe
Procedural - Cerebellum and motor cortex

Question 23

(AO3)
Outline one weakness of LTM
(lack of generalisability)

Answer 23

-Lack of generalisability for the supporting research
-Both HM and CW had had brain injuries that lead to amnesia, due to the uniqueness of their experiences we cant apply this to other individuals. Case studies use such a small sample that they can be said to lack external validity. This means that such findings cant be generalised to the population.

Question 24

Provide a strength of LTM

Answer 24

Patient HM’s case study is clear support for the different types of LTM

HM didn’t have any memory for specific events that had occurred in his life but his semantic memory was still in tact. HM would not recall stroking a dog and hour before or owning a dog in his past. Yet he could understand the concept of a ‘dog’. HM still had procedural memory e.g. being able t tie his shoe lace

This therefore provides evidence that there are separate stores of memory as HM was capable to perform some procedural tasks involving LTM (shoelace) but didn’t have episodic memory as he couldn’t remember events.

Question 25

Weakness of research of HM and CW

Answer 25

However a weakness of this research support for different types of LTM is the issue of generalisability - HM and CW suffered from brain injuries that lead to amnesia due to uniqueness of their experiences we cant apply this to other individuals. Case studies use such small sample that they can be said to lack external validity. This means that such findings cant be generalised to wider population

Question 26

Give features of central executive (WMM)

Answer 26

-Most important component of the model
-Is an attentional process that monitors incoming information
-Makes decisions and allocates slave systems to tasks
-Makes decisions about which issues deserve attention and which should be ignored

Question 27

Give features of the Phonological loop (WMM)

Answer 27

-Deals with auditory (sound) information (coding is acoustic)
-Preserves the order in which information arrives
-Information is subdivided into phonological store - (stores words you hear) and articulatory process - (allows maintenance rehearsal)

Question 28

Give features of visuospatial sketchpad (WMM)

Answer 28

-Stores visual and spatial information (known as the inner eye)
-Limited capacity of 3-4 objects
-Used for tasks such as visualising
- Codes information visually

Question 29

What are the 2 components of the visuospatial sketchpad

Answer 29

Visual cache - Stores visual information (what things look like)
Inner scribe - Records spatial information (physical relation / arrangement of objects in visual field )

Question 30

Strength of WMM
(Dual task perfromance provides empirical evidence for WMM)

Answer 30

-Dual task performance provides empirical evidence to support WMM and its separate components

-For example; Baddeley found that Ppts had difficulty when carrying out two visual tasks simultaneously compared to a visual and verbal task, which require different processing systems

-This is clear support for the WMM as research clearly shows that our memory is processing information. The greater the difficulty when doing tasks that require the same ‘slave system’ can be explained by information competing for that store.

This means that there must be separate slave systems e.g. one that processes visual information and one that process verbal information because we can process more than one type of information at the same time in some scenarios (talking whilst playing a video game)

-This strengthens our acceptance of the model

Question 31

Loftus and palmer found that…

Answer 31

-When the verb used to describe the accident was more intense, the participants judged that the car was travelling faster
-The way you ask a question can influence the participants memory of how quickly the car was travelling
-A week later, when participants were asked about smashed glass, many participants had a false memory that there was some in the video

Question 32

Criticism of WMM
(Central ecexutive lacks detail)

Answer 32

Central executive is not fully explained and lacks details. Baddeley himself said the CE is the most important but least explained component. Many researches have criticised this component, stating it is not satisfactory in terms of its role in WMM. Case study research suggests that the CE may not be a unitary store and may actually be made up of sub components

Question 33

Outline interference theory

Answer 33

An explanation for forgetting in LTM because one memory blocks another memory. This causes one or both memories to be distorted. Usually occurs when memories are similar or learned in quick succession.

Question 34

Outline Mcgeohs research into effects of similarity on our memories

Answer 34

-Lab study
-Ppts learned a list of words till they recalled them with 100% accuracy

Group 1: Synonyms
Group 2: Antonyms
Group 3: Unrelated words
Group 4: Consonant words
Group 5: Numbers

Findings:
-Ppts recall of the original list of words was impaired
-Ppts that learned the 2nd word list did the poorest with the synonyms
-Interference is strongest when materials are similar

Question 35

(AO3) Strength of Interference theory

(Evidence from lab studies, Mcgeoh and Mcdonald)

Answer 35

Mcgeohs and McDonald’s research shows that both types of interference are likely to be ways we forget info in LTM

This is a strength because lab experiments control the effects of irrelevant influences and thus give us the confidence that interference is a valid explanation for some forgetting.

Question 36

Outline Underwood’s research into proactive and retroactive interference

Answer 36

In 1957, Underwood reviewed past studies into participants’ recall of word lists. He found that earlier learning of other word lists caused proactive interference with recall of later word lists.

In a second study in 1960, Underwood and Potsman studied participants’ learning of word pairs and showed that learning a second list of word pairs using some of the same words caused retroactive interference with the recall of the first-word pair list.

Question 37

(AO3) Evaluate one weakness of interference theory
(Use of artificial stimuli, underwood)

Answer 37

One weakness of interference theory is that it lacks ecological validity and the task lacks mundane realism.
For example, underwood used word lists which have no meaning, compared to real-life things we need to remember (e.g. people’s names, bus routes, and dates) which all have importance.
This suggests we can’t apply these findings to real-life scenarios, meaning interference theory Is not a good explanation for real-life forgetting, thus weakening acceptance of interference theory

Question 38

(AO3)
Outline one strength of interference theory
(Real life studies)

Answer 38

One strength of interference theory is that Underwood’s research found support for proactive interference.
He found that when ppts only had to learn one word list, their recall was 80%, however when they had to learn multiple word lists, their recall of the last word list was 20%.
This suggests proactive interference is a real thing that impacts real-life memory recall, thus strengthening the acceptance of interference theory.

Question 39

AO3
Outline one weakness of interference theory

(Theory lacks detail)

Answer 39

A second criticism of interference theory is that It can only explain forgetting that occurs when we have two or more memories that are very similar to one another.
For example, interference theory only occurs when one memory blocks another memory from being accessed. However, the theory fails to explain how we forget when there isn’t a memory blocking another one. This suggests that the theory lacks detail and Is incomplete.

Question 40

(AO1 research)
Outline Godden and Baddeley’s research into the effect of the environment on recall.
(Environment dependent forgetting)

Answer 40

Divers were asked to learn lists of 36 unrelated words of two or 3 symbols
4 conditions:
-Learn on beach recall on beach
-Learn on beach recall underwater
-Learn underwater recall underwater
-Learn underwater recall on beach

Conclusion: When ppts learned and recalled in the same place, recall was better

Question 41

(AO1 research)
Outline Overton’s (1972) research
(State dependent forgetting)

Answer 41

4 conditions:
- Learn words sober and recall whilst sober
-Learn words sober and recall words drunk
-Learn words drunk and recall words sober
-Learn words drunk and recall words drunk

WHEN BOTH STATES WERE THE SAME, RECALL WAS SIGNIFICANTLY BETTER

Question 42

What is meant by a cue?

Answer 42

A trigger for information that allows us to access a memory.

When we encode a new memory, we also store information that occurred around it.

Question 43

What are the 2 types of cues?

Answer 43

Internal (State/mood)
External (Environmental/context)

Question 44

Strength of retrieval failure
(Supporting research from Godden and Baddeley and Overton )

Answer 44

-There is supporting research.
-Evidence for the effects of context dependent forgetting comes from research from Godden and Baddeley (divers study) and research from Overton supports state dependent forgetting.
-Both studies demonstrate the effect of state and context dependent forgetting. Results support the predictions that the theory makes. It is likely that forgetting occurs when there is a mismatch in cues at encoding and retrieval (different conditions).
-Both studies validate the theory as the research demonstrates the effects of retrieval failure both in the lab and in real life settings

Question 45

(AO3)
Weakness of retrieval failure.

(Context effects are not very strong in real life)

Answer 45

One weakness of retrieval failure is that the context effects may not be as strong in real life as they were in the supporting research
For example, context/environments are not so extreme as how they have been investigated in research (being on land or underwater)
This is a weakness as the effects of context dependent forgetting have not really been tested in real life settings. Maybe learning and recalling in a different context in a real life setting would not lead to that much forgetting as generally environments are similar.
Therefore theory lacks ecological validity, weakening our acceptance of the explanation of forgetting

Question 46

Outline Loftus and Palmer’s research into misleading information on eye witness testimony’s

Answer 46

-Ppts watched a film of a car crash and then gave speed estimates of the cars
-They were asked ‘How fast were the cars going when they X into each other?’
-Those exposed to the verb ‘smashed’ gave a speed estimate 8.7 mph greater than those who’d heard ‘contacted’.
-Therefore, this shows that leading questions due to their phrasing suggest there is a correct answer

Question 47

(AO3)
Outline one weakness of Loftus and Palmer’s research
(Demand characteristics)

Answer 47

-Participants may have realised that they were being asked leading questions
-Perhaps the phrasing was too obvious and as a result they may have realised they were being asked leading questions
-E.g. Ppts were asked ‘How fast was the car going when it smashed?’
Therefore this weakens our acceptance of loftus and Palmer’s research

Question 48

Outline Gabbert’s research into conformity effect in post event discussion

Answer 48

-Controlled lab experiment, independent group design

-Showed ppts a film clip of the same crime scene, but with different details for each member. After engaging in post-event discussions with the other member of each pair and individually completing a test of recall, the researchers found 71% inaccuracy rates of information gained through the discussions, compared to a 0% control group rate who had worked alone throughout.

Question 49

(AO3)
Provide a weakness of EWT
(Demand characteristics)

Answer 49

-Demand characteristics may reduce the reliability of the findings.
-Psychologists argue that that Ppts want to be as helpful as possible.
-Through social desirability bias an ‘Please-U’ effect, when in doubt over their answer to a question, they are likely to give an answer which seems most beneficial or expected for the researcher, thus biasing the results.

Question 50

(AO3)
Weakness of EWT - Loftus and Palmer
(Low ecological validity)

Answer 50

The artificial tasks used by Loftus and Palmer, alongside Gabbert, reduces ecological validity of the findings and the mundane realism of the methodology. For example, the film clips of the car crashes do not expose ppts to anxiety of experiencing a real life car crash. The anxiety may either have a negative or positive effect on accuracy of EWT, thus biasing the findings.

Question 51

How does anxiety effect EWT in a positive way?

Answer 51

-The stress of witnessing the crime creates anxiety through psychological arousal in the body.

-Increases alertness. We pay more attention to cues in the environment.

-Evolutionary response to aid survival

Question 52

Outline Yerkes-Dodson curve

Answer 52

-Explains the relationship between emotional arousal and performance

-Memory becomes most accurate as the level of anxiety experienced increases to an intermediate level

Question 53

(AO3)
Evaluate one weakness of the effect of anxiety on EWT
(lack of control over extraneous variables)

Answer 53

One weakness with real life studies into the effects of anxiety on EWT arise from the lack of control over extraneous variables in field studies.

For example, when witnesses were interviewed after the event this can be an issue because the interviewer could have asked leading questions, suggesting a certain type of answer. Further more, post event discussion can occur between witnesses. This also skews the testimony as false information can be planted into a memory, making them less reliable.

Increased accuracy in such real life situations could be due to other factors which were not controlled. This means the relationship between anxiety and accuracy of EWT is very difficult to be sure of. This decreases validity of research findings.

This weakens our acceptance of the theory

Question 54

What is proactive interference?

Answer 54

Proactive interference is when an old memory interfere with a new memory

Question 55

What are the 4 factors influencing memory recall?

Answer 55

Schemas
Leading questions
Post-event discussion
Anxiety

Question 56

How do schemas affect memory accuracy?

Answer 56

They can lead to false memories if we use pre-existing schemas to fill in a memory
When we retrieve a memory we use all our pre-existing schemas to fill in the gaps

Question 57

How do leading questions affect memory accuracy?

Answer 57

Leading questions suggest a certain type of answer which can influence our memory recall e.g. ‘How was David dressed when he spoke to you?’
The question already assumes things, as a result, this can make us believe things which didn’t happen

Question 58

How does post-event discussion influence memory accuracy?

Answer 58

Discussing an event can cause us to reinterpret the memory or not remember what happened
People discuss an event after it happened

Question 59

How does anxiety affect memory accuracy?

Answer 59

From no anxiety to slight anxiety, accuracy of memory increases
From moderate anxiety to lots of anxiety, accuracy of memory decreases

Question 60

Outline one strength of the cognitive interview

Answer 60

Cognitive research is effective
A meta-analysis of 53 studies found that the cognitive interview produces 34% more correct information than the standard interview
This means the cognitive interview is effective in helping ppts recall information
However, the sample was mainly drawn from students (can’t generalise) and was conducted in a lab setting (lack of ecological validity)