research methods year 1 Flashcards
explain what is meant by an ‘aim’
general statement which describes the purpose of an investigation
explain what is meant by a hypothesis
statement which is made at the start of a study and clearly describes the relationship between the variables
explain what is meant by an IV
independent variable
the factor that changes
explain what is meant by a DV
dependent variable
factor that is being measured
explain what is meant by operationalisation
ensuring the variables are measurable
explain the difference between a directional hypothesis and a non-directional hypothesis
a directional hypothesis shows the expected difference between the two variables which is anticipated
(often used when there is previous research/theories suggesting a specific outcome)
a non-directional hypothesis demonstrates there is a link between the variables expected but does not state the nature of this difference
(often used when there is little previous research/the research is contradictory)
what are confounding variables?
a type of extraneous variable which differs systematically with the independent variable
what is an extraneous variable?
a variable which is not being investigated in the study which has the potential to affect the outcome
what are demand characteristics?
characteristics as a result of the participants trying to make sense of the study and act accordingly to support the aim of the research
explain what is meant by investigator effects
any unwanted influence of the researcher on the research outcome
explain what is meant by randomisation
use of chance methods to reduce researcher’s unconscious bias
minimises CVs and EVs
explain what is meant by standardisation
participants should be subject to same environment/information/experience
all procedures are standardised
explain ‘independent group design’
two separate groups of participants experience two separate conditions in the experiment
(often a control condition group and an experimental condition group)
explain ‘repeated measures’
all participants experience both conditions (often including a control condition)
results can be compared
explain ‘matched pairs’
participants are paired together based on a variable relevant to the experiment
(eg IQ or memory test)
pros and cons of laboratory experiment
+ high controls over variables (CV and EV)
+ replication possible - ensures validity
- lack generalisability, artificial environment may change natural behaviour
- low mundane realism
pros and cons of field experiments
+ high mundane realism, natural behaviour
+high external validity (may be unaware they’re being studied)
-loss of control of CVs and EVs
-lack of precision
-ethical issues (lack of consent?)
pros and cons of natural experiments
+ provide opportunity for research which may not have been done due to practical/ethical reasons
+ high external validity
-naturally occurring event doesn’t happen often- not a lot of opportunity for research
- participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions
pros and cons of quasi experiments
+ controlled conditions, replication possible
- can not randomly allocate participants to conditions, may be confounding variables
describe a laboratory experiment set up
highly controlled conditions, in a lab or classroom
describe a field experiment set up
takes place in a natural everyday setting
describe a natural experiment set up
a natural event, researcher has no control over IV
describe a quasi experiment set up
IV is based on pre-existing differences between people (gender/age)
explain ‘random sampling’ and pros/cons
all members of the target population have an equal opportunity of being selected (lottery method)
+unbiased
+variables equally divided between groups
-time consuming
-difficult to obtain population list
explain ‘systematic sampling’ and pros/cons
every nth number of target population is selected and sampling frame is produced
+objective once frame is produced, researcher has no influence
-time consuming
-refusal can mean it is not representative
explain ‘stratified sampling’ and pros/cons
composition of sample represents proportions of people in certain subgroups.
the different ‘strata’ which make up a population are identified
+produces representative sample
-identified strata can no represent entire population
explain ‘opportunity sampling’ and pros/cons
takes a chance of whoever is around
+cheaper and quicker
- unrepresentative
-researcher controls who they select- bias
explain ‘volunteer sampling’ and pros/cons
participants select themselves (self-selection)
+cheaper and quicker
+participants are engaged
-volunteer bias attracts certain profile of people (not representative of all)
explain how the need for informed consent can be dealt with
make participants aware of the a…
explain their r… t.. w…
explain how their d… will be used
what is a con of this?
making participants aware of the aim of research
explaining their right to withdraw
explain how their data will be used
(con: may affect their natural behaviour)
explain what is meant by ‘deception’
deliberately lying or withholding information
explain what is meant by ‘protection from harm’
participants should not be placed in any more risk than their everyday lives
protected from physical and psychological harm
what does BPS stand for?
The British Psychological Society
explain ‘presumptive consent’
similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable, consent is ‘presumed’
explain ‘prior general consent’
participants give consent to take part in a number of different studies, including one that included deception
explain ‘retrospective consent’
ask for consent during debriefing, the study has already taken place
explain what a ‘pilot study’ is and what the aim is
a pilot study is a small-scale investigation which takes place before the real investigation
aim is to allow researcher to make modifications to the experiment if necessary
explain ‘single-blind procedure’
the researcher is aware of the aims of the study howver the participants are not
any information which ay create expectations is not revealed until the end of the study
controls demand characteristics
explain ‘double-blind procedure’
neither participant nor researcher (who is conducting the investigation) is aware of the aims
researcher can not influence participants behaviour
pros and cons of naturalistic observations
+ high external validity (natural environment so more likely natural behaviour)
-lack of control, replication is difficult
pros and cons of covert observations
+participants are unaware they are the focus of the study, removes demand characteristics
-ethical?
pros and cons of overt observations
+participants have given consent beforehand
-participants know they are being observed- demand characteristics
pros and cons of participant observations
+observer becomes part of the group, so increased insight
-researcher may get close and lose objectivity
pros and cons of non-participant observation
+ maintain objectivity
-lose valuable insight
describe ‘unstructured observation’ and pros/cons
write down everything, produces detailed report
+more detail
-qualitative, open to interpretation/bias
describe ‘structured observation’ and pros/cons
simplify target behaviours by behavioural categories
+organised and systematic
+quantative date, easily compared
-may miss out info
explain ‘event sampling’ and pros/cons
counting number of times a certain behaviour/’event’ occurs
+good when event happens irregularly (and may be missed by time)
-observer may overlook important details
explain ‘time sampling’ and pros/cons
recording a behaviour within a pre-established time frame
+reduces number of observations that have to be made
- may be unrepresentative
pros and cons of questionnaires
+cost effective
+lots of data quickly
+researcher does not have to present
+produces straightforward data
- not always truthful responses
-demand characteristics
-respond quickly
-acquiescence bias (agreeing anyway)
explain the difference between an open and a closed question
open- no fixed range of answers, produces qualitative data
closed-offers number of fixed responses, produces quantative data
pros and cons of a structured interview
+easy to replicate
-can’t deviate, limits richness of data collected
pros and cons of an un-structured interview
+gain insight
-interviewer bias
-have to sift through irrelevant information
explain what a ‘likert scale’ is
a number scale based on the strength of agreement
how can you control interviewer bias?
standardisation of questions
what does a correlation do?
demonstrates direction and strength of association between two co-variables
what is the difference between a correlation and an experiment?
experiment, researcher manipulates IV whereas correlation there is no manipulation so cause and effect can not be established
pros and cons of a correlation
+provides quantifiable measure of how two variables are related
+starting point to assess possible patterns
+quick and economical
-tell us relationship but not why
-no controls, unsure which variable is causing correlation
explain qualitative data and pros/cons
expressed in words (eg transcript from interview)
+allows expression of all thoughts on topic
+greater richness of detail
-difficult to analyse and compare
-conclusions often rely on subjective interpretations
explain quantative data and pros/cons
expressed numerically (can be translated into graphs/charts)
+simple to analyse, comparisons can be made
-narrower in meaning/detail- may not be representative of ‘real life’
explain primary data and pros/cons
original data collected specifically for that investigation
+designed to target specific information needed
-time and effort
explain secondary data and pros/cons
data that already exists
+easy to access
+inexpensive
-variation in quality (out of date/incomplete)
explain what meta-analysis is and pros/cons
uses secondary data
number of studies that had same aim/hypothesis are pooled together to form collective conclusion
+larger, more varied sample
+results can be generalised across larger populations
+increases validity
-publication bias (researcher may leave out relevant studies)
explain what is meant by peer review
all aspects of the written investigation are analysed by experts - reviewer should be objective and unknow from researcher
what are the aims of peer review?
to allocate funding
validate researcher (quality and relevance)
suggest amendments and improvements
explain these evaluations of peer review:
anonymity
publication bias
burying research
anonymity
+ gives more honest appraisal
-may criticise rival researchers for funding
publication bias
-want to publish positive results so leave put relevant info
burying information
-reviewers likely to agree with info that supports their own conclusions
-may slow down rate of change within specific scientific discipline
explain how attachment research into the role of the father has affected the economy
proven a child can have a meaningful connection to father
mother and father can share emotional role
better equipped to maximise their income and contribute more effectively to the economy as both parents can [lay emotional support role to child
explain how the development of treatment for mental disorders has affected the economy
many people with mental disorders are able to maintain their condition and return to work, producing healthy workforce
What did John Bowly suggest?
a child can only ever form a secure and lasting bond with its mother
explain the difference between privacy and confidentiality
when may confidentiality be difficult?
when may privacy be difficult?
privacy concerns people whereas confidentiality concerns data
confidentiality may be difficult when details of a study may lead to participant identification
privacy may be difficult when personal info may be valuable for a study, for example in covert observation
what is counterbalancing?
Counterbalancing is a technique used to deal with order effects when using a repeated measures design.
sample is divided in half, with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order.
