psychopathology Flashcards
explain how statistical infrequency can be used as a definition of abnormality
give an example
evaluate.
statistical infrequency demonstrates when an individual has a less common characteristic.
this is used for characteristics which can be reliably measured.
e.g; intelligence, using an IQ test
average IQ is 100, if below 70, person is liable for IDD diagnosis
+can be used in clinical practice for diagnosis
-infrequent characteristics aren’t necessarily a negative thing, should not be used as the sole basis for defining abnormality
explain how deviation from social norms can be used as a definition for abnormality.
give an example.
evaluate.
concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour for that community/society.
e.g antisocial personality disorder (psychopathy)- DSM 5 describing it as ‘failure to conform to lawful and culturally normal, ethical behaviour’
+can be used in clinical practice, used to define when a person is deviating from what’s expected
-there is a variation of social norms between different cultures/situations
explain how failure to function adequately can be used as a definition of abnormality
reference S…. and R…. work.
evaluate.
+ sensible ….
- easy to ….
failure to function adequately means a person can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life.
Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) suggested these were the signs a person is not coping:
-no longer conform to standard, impersonal rules
-severe personal distress
-behaviour is dangerous/irrational
+sensible threshold for when professional help is needed, treatment can be given to those who need it most
-easy to label non-standard life choices as abnormal
explain how deviation from ideal mental health can be used as a definition for abnormality.
reference Jahoda’s work
evaluate
Jahoda (1958) created a list displaying the qualities needed for ideal mental health:
(here are a few: )
-no symptoms/distress
-realistic view of the world
-self actualise
-good self esteem
-independent of other people
+provides checklist, highly comprehensive, covers many reasons why people may need help
-different elements are not equally applicable across a range of cultures
how does DSM-5 define phobias?
all phobias are characterised by excessive fear and anxiety, triggered by an object, place or situation
explain these phobias:
specific phobia
social phobia
agoraphobia
specific phobia- phobic of an object/situation
social phobia- phobia of social situation
agoraphobia- phobia of outside/public places
explain the behavioural characteristics of phobias
p….
a…..
e…..
panic - screaming, crying, run away
avoidance - preventing contact with phobic stimulus
endurance- choosing to remain in contact with phobic stimulus
explain the emotional characteristics of phobias
a…
f….
e…r…. is u….
anxiety - unpleasant state of high arousal, difficult to relax
fear- shorter period, immediate and unpleasant
emotional response is unreasonable- reaction to phobia is disproportionate to threat posed
explain the cognitive characteristics of phobias
s… a….
i… b…..
c…. d….
selective attention to phobic stimulus - hard to look away (this is good when reacting to a threat, but not when the fear is irrational)
irrational beliefs- holds belief in relation to phobic stimulus which has no basis in reality. increases pressure for person to perform well.
cognitive distortions- perceptions may be inaccurate/distorted
explain the behavioural approach to EXPLAINING phobias
(model)
behavioural approach emphasises the role of behaviour, using the two process model which was created by Mowrer (1960)
1.acquisition by classical conditioning
learning to associate neutral stimulus (no fear of this) with an unconditioned stimulus (thing you are naturally fearful of)
2.maintenance by operant conditioning
takes place when a behaviour is reinforced or punished
when we avoid phobic stimulus, we successfully escape the fear we would have experienced if it remained there
this reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour, and so the phobia is maintained.
EVALUATE the behavioural approach to EXPLAINING phobias (two-process model)
+applied in real world, identifies a means of treating behaviours
+explains link between traumatic experiences and phobias, as demonstrated with Little Albert study
-does not account for cognitive aspects of phobias, doesn’t offer adequate explanation for phobic cognitions, eg cognitive distortions
explain the behavioural approach for TREATING phobias
(SD)
systematic desensitisation (SD)
behavioural therapy used to gradually reduce phobic anxiety, through the principle of classical conditioning
if person can learn to relax in presence of phobic stimulus, they will learn a new response - called ‘counterconditioning’
three processes in SD:
- anxiety hierarchy
list of situations relating to phobia, constructed by therapist and patient - relaxation
therapist teaches patient to relax
based of theory of reciprocal inhibition (can’t be calm and afraid at same time)
meditation/breathing techniques - exposure
client is exposed to phobic stimulus whilst in relaxed state
takes place in several sessions, beginning at bottom of hierarchy
treatment is complete when patient can stay relaxed in situations high up in the hierarchy
explain the behavioural approach for TREATING behaviours
(flooding)
evaluate
involves exposing people to their phobic stimulus, without a gradual build up
flooding stops phobic responses quickly- without the option of avoidance, client learns that the phobic stimulus is harmless- called ‘extinction’
+cost effective as it tends to be one long lesson
-possibly traumatic, ensure informed consent
-attrition (drop out) rates are higher than SD
describe the behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of depression
behavioural
-activity levels
-sleep/eating disruption
-aggression/self harm
emotional
-lowered mood
-anger
-lowered self esteem
cognitive
-poor concentration
-attending/dwelling on negative
-absolutist thinking
explain the cognitive approach towards treating depression
-Beck’s negative triad
-Ellis’s ABC Model
Beck’s ‘negative triad’ states that people have 3 types of negative thinking which occur naturally:
1.negative view of world
2.negative view of self
3.negative view of future
suggests depressed people have ‘faulty information processing’ which means they only attend the negatives and have a ‘negative self schema’
Elli’s ABC model:
A- activating event (event which triggers depression)
B- irrational beliefs
C- consequences (emotional and behavioural)
added these when discussing treatment of depression:
D- dispute (challenging beliefs through vigorous argument )
E- effect
In Ellis’s ABC model, there are ‘irrational beliefs’. Give examples of these.
Musturbation - must achieve perfection
Utopianism- belief that life is meant to be fair
Evaluate Beck’s approach to treating depression.
research support (cognitive vulnerabilities)
real world application (screen)
+ research support
Clark and Beck (1999) concluded that not only were cognitive vulnerabilities more common in depressed people, but they preceded depression.
Further supported by Cohen (2019) research.
+real world application
allows psychologists to screen people for cognitive vulnerabilities to identify those most at risk from developing depression- this can be applied to CBT
explain what is meant by Beck’s idea of ‘cognitive vulnerability’
ways of thinking that may predispose a person to becoming depressed
evaluate Ellis’s ABC model
real world (type of therapy)
doesn’t explain …. end
+ real world application
can be applied to rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) as it challenges irrational beliefs
REBT was developed from Ellis’ model
David et al (2018) found this therapy can relieve symptoms of depression
-doesn’t explain all types of depression
reactive depression is triggered by life event but endogenous depression has no clear link to event (no activating event as suggested by model)
describe different types of dispute Ellis may use in ABC model during the ‘dispute’ phase
empirical argument- is there evidence for this belief?
logical argument- does this thought logically follow facts?
explain what CBT is
CBT is a cognitive approach used to treat depression
cognitive element- begins with an assessment where the client and therapist identify irrational thoughts
behaviour element- work to change irrational thoughts by enforcing more effective behaviours
explain the specifics of Beck’s approach to CBT
identify negative/irrational thoughts using negative triad
once identified, these thoughts must be challenged
“client as a scientist”
in future sessions, therapist can present this research as evidence
evaluate CBT
+ evidence for effectiveness
March et al (2006) combination of antidepressant drugs and CBT was more effective than just drugs (86% had improvement)
fairly brief- often around 12 sessions - used by NHS
-suitability for diverse clients
severe cases and learning disabilities
can’t engage
Sturmey (2005) psychotherapy is not suitable for anyone with learning difficulties
suggests CBT may only be appropriate for specific range of people
-relapse rates
Ali et al (2017) had 439 clients and 53% relapsed within a year
suggests CBT may need to be repeated periodically
explain the cycle of OCD
obsessive thought
anxiety
compulsive behaviour
temporary relief
state the behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of OCD
behavioural
vary for each person but are all :repetitive, reduce anxiety and avoidance
emotional
anxiety and distress
accompanying depression
guilt and disgust
cognitive
obsessive thoughts- many cognitive feature for 90% of those with OCD
cognitive coping strategies (praying/mediating) (may seem abnormal)
insight into excessive anxiety (aware it’s irrational)
explain OCD using the biological approach
uses genetic explanations:
genes can make an individual more vulnerable to OCD (genetic vulnerability)- candidate genes create vulnerability
polygenic, meaning it’s caused by a combination of genetic variations
aetelogically heterogenous- different genes cause OCD in different causes of origin
also uses neural explanations:
genes are likely to affect the neurotransmitters and structures of the brain
serotonin controls mood-relevant transmission
lateral frontal loads- abnormal functioning, difficulty making decisions
left parahippocampal gyrus- associated with processing unpleasant emotions
EVALUATE the biological approach to OCD
reference genetics and neural explanations
genetics
+type of study (%)
- e… r… factors
neural
+ an… shown to …
- no unique ….
genetics:
+twin studies show that monozygotic (identical) twins are more likely to share OCD
Gerald Nestadt et al (2010)- 68% of identical twins shared OCD compared to 31% non-identical twins
suggests some genetic influence on OCD development
-environmental risk factors
these trigger/increase OCD risk
Cromer (2007)- half OCD patients had experienced traumatic event
neural:
+antidepressants that work on serotonin are effective in treating OCD
OCD symptoms from other conditions are known to have biological basis
-no unique neural system
many people with OCD also have depression (co-morbidity)
serotonin levels may be disrupted by depression so serotonin may not be relevant to OCD
Explain the biological approach to treating OCD
drug therapy - such as SSRIs
people with OCD often have low levels of serotonin
SSRIS (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor)
serotonin usually travels across a synapse from the presynaptic nerve to the postsynaptic nerve
it is then reabsorbed by the postsynaptic nerve, broken down and reused
SSRIs block the reabsorption of serotonin so that it the levels across the synapse stay increased, continuing to stimulate the postsynaptic nerve
explain the dosage, form and time of SSRIs
low dose (around 20mg daily) and increase if necessary
capsule/liquid
tales 3-4 months to have an effect
why are drugs sometimes used as an alternative to other treatments
cases can be so severe that the person is unable to engage with other treatment such as CBT
often used alongside CBT as they reduce symptoms, allowing the person to engage effectively
drugs are less time consuming, convenient and cheaper
what are the alternatives to SSRIs?
tricyclics (older type of antidepressant)
more severe side effects, used on people who do not respond to SSRIs
eg : clomipramine
SNRIs-
serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors
increases levels of both neurotransmitters across synapse
evaluate the biological approach to treating OCD
effectiveness (metanalysis)
side effects
+ evidence for effectiveness
clear evidence to show SSRIs reduce symptoms of OCD
17 studies (metanalysis) - symptoms are reduced for 70% of those who took SSRIs
+cost effective and non-disruptive
psychological therapies are expensive and time consuming, drugs are good value for public health system and can easily be implemented into everyday life
-serious side effects
small minority do not get any benefits from SSRIs
short term side effects- blurred vision, low sex drive, indigestion problems
long term side effects- heart problems or aggression
1 in 100 experience heart problems as a result of SSRIs
some people have a reduced quality of life as a result of taking these drugs so therefore taking these drugs, this means that the drugs cease to be effective
