issues and debates Flashcards
what is gender bias?
gender bias is when research/a theory does not justifiably re[present the experience and behaviour of men and women (usually women.)
what is universality?
how can gender bias affect universality?
universality means underlying characteristics that can be applied to all people
if there is gender bias, the principle of universality is challenged.
what are the two types of gender bias ? - explain them both
ALPHA BIAS:
-differences between sexes are overestimated/overexaggerated
-differences are presented as fixed/inevitable (essentialism)
-these differences normally devalue women in relation to men
-e.g: sociobiological theory of relationship formation- suggest sexual promiscuity is genetic in men but same behaviour in women goes against their ‘nature’
BETA BIAS:
-ignores/minimises differences between men and women
-often occurs if women are not included in the research process (or vice versa)
-occurs if it assumes findings from studies on one gender apply equally to both sexes
what are the consequences of alpha and beta bias?
alpha and beta bias (both types of gender bias) can lead to androcentrism.
this means the world is seen/viewed from a male perspective and normal behaviour is judges according to a male standard and women’s behaviour is deemed abnormal
for example:
premenstural syndrome has made women’s emotions a hormonal matter , wheras men’s emotions are often viewed as legitimate/rational due to external pressures
another example:
American Psychological Association published 100 most influential psychologists , only 6 were women
evaluate gender bias
- gender biases are presented as fixed
Maccoby and Jacklin (1974)- concluded a study suggesting women had superior verbal capabilities whereas men had superior spatial capabilities
research like this suggests differences are hardwired in the brain , however the data was popularised because it simply fitted in with stereotypes
Daphna Joel et al (2015) used brain scanning to find that there are no differences in brain structure between the sexes
-institutional sexism
gender bias promotes sexism in the research process
women remain underrepresented in university departments
Murphy (2014) - lecturers are mainly all men despite psychology’s undergraduate intake is mainly all women
outline cultural bias
cultural bias is the tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of one’s own culture
universality and bias:
Henrich (2010) , reviews 100s of trials and found 68% were from US, 96% from industrialised nations
Henrich (2010) - ‘WEIRD’ , western, educated, industrialised, rich,democracy
norm is set by WEIRD, and other behaviour deemed abormal
ethnocentrism:
belief of own culture’s superiority
e.g strange situation reflects values of western culture
Takahashi (1986)- Japanese infants more likely to be labelled as insecurely attached as they are rarely separated from mothers so show distress
cultural relativism:
Berry (1960) - distinguished etic and emic approaches
etic- look at behaviour from outside culture and describe it as universal
emic-look at behaviours inside culture and identify them as specific to that culture
strange situation is an example of imposed etic
evaluate cultural bias
- individualism and collectivism
increasing interconnectedness creates less of a distinction between individualism and collectivism
Takano and Osaka (1999) - 14/15 studies between US and Japan
-cultural relativism
should not be assumed all psychology is culturally relative
Ekman (1989)- basic facial expressions such as happiness and disgust are universal
e.g strange situation : some features of human attachment such as imitation and interactional synchrony are universal
-unfamiliarity with research tradition
Western culture- familiar with psychological research
Bond and Smith (1966)- demand characteristics may be worse when working with members of local population due to lack of knowledge of research process
outline the free will and determinism debate
FREE WILL
idea that humans can make changes and are not determined by biological or external forces
DETERMINISM
hard determinism implies that free will is not possible, behaviours/events are always caused by factors beyond our control
soft determinism suggests all events/behaviours have a cause but can also be determined by conscious choice
biological- behaviour is caused by biological influences (genes,hormones,evolution)
environmental- events/behaviour are caused by features of the environment such as reward and punishment that we can’t control
psychic- belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts we can’t control
SCIENTIFIC EMPHASIS ON CAUSAL EXPLANATIONS
basic principle of science is that every event has a cause, all causes can be explained using general laws ,
knowledge of these causes and formation of laws are important as they allow scientists to predict/control events in the future , in psychology the lab experiment as it allows causal relationships to be studied
evaluate the free will/determinism debate
+practical value
believing we have free will improves mental health
Roberts (2000) - adolescents who have a fatalistic view were more likely to develop depression
having an internal LOC makes us happier
-research evidence
brain scans don’t support free will
Libet (1983)- instructed participants to flick their wrist at a random point (testing ‘readiness potential’) whilst measuring brain activity and asking them to say when they felt the conscious will to move
found unconscious brain activity leading up to the conscious decision to move came 0.5 seconds before they moved
suggests most basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain before we’re aware
A compromise?
Interactionist approach
for example done with SLT, Bandura argued although environmental factors in learning are key, we choose to perform certain behaviours
outline the nature -nurture debate
nature:
refers to inherited influences that are determined by genes
Descartes (1596-1650)- all human characteristics are innate
nurture:
refers to influence of environment
empiricists such as Locke (1632-1704) argue mind is a blank slate at birth and then is shaped by the environment
Lerner (1986)- identified different levels of the environment, including prenatal factors such as physical influences (smoking) of psychological influences (music) affect a foetus
measuring nature and nurture:
degree two people are similar on a particular trait can be shown using a correlation coefficient called concordance.
concordance implies the extent to which a trait is inherited- this is called heritability
epigenetics:
introduces third element into nature/nurture debate.
refers to change in genetic activity without a change to the genes themselves.
this is a process that happens throughout like due to interactions with the environment, with aspects of our lifestyle leaving ‘marks’ on DNA
these epigenetic changes may go on and influence the genetic codes of our children
diathesis stress model:
suggests behaviour is caused by a biological/environmental vulnerability which is only expressed when coupled with an environmental/biological stressor - for example, OCD
evaluate the nature-nurture debate
+adoption studies
separate competing influences of nature and nurture
if adopted children are more similar to biological parents, genetic factors are assumed to dominate
if more similar to adopted parents, environmental factors are assumed to dominate
metanalysis by Rhee and Waldman (2002) found that genetics accounted for 41% of variance in aggression
shows research can separate the influence of nature/nurture
+support for epigenetics
during WW2, people starved during Dutch winter , Susser and Shang (1992) found women who became pregnant during famine had low weight babies and were twice as likely to develop schizophrenia as they developed
supports view epigenetic ‘markers’ can be left
+RWA
nature/nurture is not just theoretical, also practical
research suggests OCD is highly heritable
Nestadt (2010)- OCD has heritability of 7.6
such understanding can inform genetic counselling as it does not mean high heritability means it is inevitable
those at high genetic risk can receive advice about likelihood of developing disorder and ways to prevent it
outline idiographic and nomothetic approaches
idiographic:
studies people as individuals, taking into account their unique subjective experiences, motivations and values , ensuring they don’t compare people
methods: case studies, unstructured interviews
e.g: humanistic psychology (Maslow/Roberts)
nomothetic:
studies human behaviour through the development of general principles
often reductionist and deterministic
methods: scientific, repeated dittoing to develop laws
e.g behaviourist approach (Skinner, laws of learning)
evaluate idiographic and nomothetic approaches
idiographic
+ in depth , create global account of individual - single case can create hypothesis which can then be studied in more nomothetic way
-not scientific, reliant on subjective interpretations (e.g many of Freud’s concepts were made on the single case of Little Hans)
nomothetic:
+more scientific, tested under standardised conditions- allowed psychologists to identify ‘norms’ of behviours, such as average IQ - arguably giving greater scientific credibility
-overlooks the richness of human behaviour (e.g knowing there is a 1% chance of developing schizophrenia tells us nothing about someone who is suffering it) this means in its search for generalities, may overlook the richness of human behaviour
conclusion:
shouldn’t se these studies as mutually exclusive
e.g research in gender development has attempted to establish general patterns of behaviour, whilst considering case studies of atypical development
outline socially sensitive research
Sieber and Stanley (1988) describe socially sensitive research as ‘studies in which there are potential consequences or implications’
ethical implications- impact psychological research may have in terms of the rights of the participants. This includes at a societal level, the possibility of influencing public policy and how certain groups are regarded.
research question:
Sieber and Stanley (1988) warn the way research questions are phrased/investigated may influence way findings are interpreted
Coyle (1995)- note how research into relationships has a ‘heterosexual bias’
dealing with participants;
issues such as informed consent, confidentiality and psychological harm arise especially in socially sensitive research
e.g: in a study on domestic abuse, participants may be worried their ex-partner will find out, or not realise the trauma it may bring up > may not quite realise what they’re consenting to.
uses/public policy:
researchers should consider in advance how research findings maybe used - this may impact wat data they collect.
findings may give scientific credence to pre-existing prejudices
sensitive info is what the media is interested in > e.g Owen’s research on people in a minimally conscious state attracted an enormous amount of media attention.
evaluate socially sensitive research
+ provides benefits
for example, homosexuality
in 1952, the DSM-1 listed this as a ‘sociopathic personality disorder’, but finally removed it in 1973. This was due to the Kinsey report (1948) which interviewed 5000 men about their sexuality and concluded homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour.
+RWA
certain groups , policymakers, rely on this research
the government looks to data to make policies (e.g on healthcare , childcare, mental health provisions)
in order to ensure psychological conclusions are accurate, there are independent groups , for example the ONS who are responsible for objective statistics
-findings have severe impact once open to public
once findings are in the public arena, results can change policies/attitudes - it is essential this socially sensitive research is therefore accurate.
e.g : Burt (1995), was essential in establishing 11+ exam , however it was later found out the a lot of the data he found in order to back his suggestions was made up.
