Research Methods Y1 Flashcards
What is the definition of a population?
A group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn.
What is the definition of a sample?
A group of people who take part in a research investigation.
Where is a sample drawn from?
From a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population.
What is the definition of bias?
When certain groups are over- or under-represented within the sample selected.
What is the negative effect of bias?
It limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.
What is the definition of generalisation?
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population.
When is generalisation possible?
If the sample of participants is representative of the population.
Why is it often called a ‘target population’?
It is a subset of the general population.
Why are samples used?
For practical and economic reasons, it is usually not possible to include all members of a target population -> researcher uses a smaller group.
What should samples ideally be and why?
Representative of the target population so that generalisation of findings become possible.
Why is it often very difficult to represent populations?
Due to the inevitably diverse nature of populations, e.g, different age, ethnicity, gender.
What are the 5 main sampling techniques?
Random sampling, Systematic sampling, Stratified sampling, Opportunity sampling, Volunteer sampling.
Why are sampling techniques used?
In attempt to produce a representative sample.
What is a random sample?
A form of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.
What are the steps of random sampling?
1- Obtain a complete list of all members of the target population.
2- All the names of the list are assigned a number.
3- The actual sample is selected through the use of some lottery method - a computer/phone randomiser or picking numbers from a hat.
What is a systematic sample?
When every nth member of the target population is selected.
What is produced in systematic sampling and what is it?
A sampling frame - a list of people in the target population that are organised some way.
What happens after a sampling frame is produced in systematic sampling?
A sampling system is nominated (e.g, every 3rd person) and the researcher then works through the sampling frame until the sample is complete.
What is a stratified sample?
A form of sampling in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups within the target population/wider population.
What are the steps of stratified sampling?
1- The researcher identifies the different strata that make up the population.
2- The proportions needed for the sample to be representative are worked out.
3- The participants that make up each stratum are selected using random sampling (hat/random number generator).
What is an opportunity sample?
Where the researcher simply takes the chance to ask whoever is around at the time of their study to participate, e.g, in the street.
What is a volunteer sample?
Involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample.
How would a volunteer sample potentially be selected?
A researcher may place an advert in a newspaper or on a common room noticeboard.
Strength of a random sample and why?
Potentially unbiased - means that confounding variables or extraneous variables should be equally divided between the different groups - enhancing internal validity.
Limitation of a random sample and why?
Difficult and time consuming to conduct as a complete list of the target population may be difficult to obtain.
Strength of a systematic sample and why?
It is objective, as once the system for selection has been established, the researcher has no influence over who is chosen.
Limitation of a systematic sample and why?
Time-consuming, and in the end, participants may refuse to take part.
Strength of a stratified sample and why?
Produces a largely representative sample, because it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of the population = generalisation of findings becomes possible.
Limitation of a stratified sample and why?
It is not perfect. The identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different, so complete representation of the target population is not possible.
Strength of an opportunity sample and why?
Convenient. Much less costly in terms of time and money as a list of members of the target population is not required + there is no need to divide the population into different strata (like in stratified).
Limitation of an opportunity sample and why?
Suffers from two forms of bias.
1- The sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a very specific area.
2- The researcher has complete control over the selection of participants = researcher bias.
Strengths of a volunteer sample and why?
Easy. It requires minimal input from the researcher and so is less time-consuming.
The researcher ends up with participants who are more engaged.
Limitation of a volunteer sample and why?
Volunteer bias. Asking for volunteers may attract a certain ‘profile’ of person, that is, one who is curious and more likely to try to please the researcher.
What is a case study and how is it usually carried out?
An in-depth study of one person or a group of people over time.
It is usually carried out in the real world and is usually longitudinal.
What are the techniques used in a case study?
- IQ testing.
- Personality testing.
- Observations.
- Interviews.
- Experiments.
- Medical case notes.
How are the findings of case studies organised?
Into themes to represent the individuals thoughts, emotions, experiences and abilities.
How is data from a case study often presented?
In a qualitative way - though quantitative date may also be included, e.g, scores from psychological tests.
What should be maintained in a case study and how?
Confidentiality. By making sure individuals are not identifiable - could be done by using a different name/initials, and by not publishing details of an address, ect.
Advantages of case studies?
1- Rich data.
2- High ecological validity.
3- Investigates situations which could not be set up for ethical reasons.
How are case studies rich in data and how is this a strength?
As case studies are usually longitudinal, a large amount of data is gathered over a long period of time. Strength = gives great depth and understanding of an individual/group.
How do case studies have high ecological validity and how is this a strength?
Usually longitudinal and the p.p/group is often studied in their own environment. Strength = case studies have high external (ecological) validity.
How do case studies investigate situations which could not be set up for ethical reasons and how is this a strength?
Often investigate naturally occurring events that would be unethical to test during an experiment. Strength = they can provide insight into areas of psychology that we wouldn’t be able to investigate in any other way.
Limitations of case studies?
1- Findings cannot be generalised very easily to other individuals.
2- Difficult to replicate.
3- Researcher bias.
How can case study findings not be easily generalised to other individuals and how is this a limitation?
Each individual/group and their experience is unique so case studies may only represent the behaviour of one group/person. Limitation = may be difficult to generalise the results to others.
How are case studies difficult to replicate and how is this a limitation?
Case studies are very unique. Limitation = it is not possible to test the external reliability of the findings.
How do case studies involve researcher bias and how is this a limitation?
Usually longitudinal, so researchers may get to know the individual well which may lead to a loss of objectivity. Limitation = if this were to happen it would reduce the internal validity of the study.
What are investigator effects?
Any effect of the investigators behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (DV).
What may investigator effects include?
Everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process.
What is randomisation?
The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions.
What is standardisation?
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.
What is the definition of experimental design?
The different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.
What is the definition of independent groups (IG) design?
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.
How does independent groups design work?
Two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment. The performance of the two groups would then be compared.
What is the definition of repeated measures (RM) design?
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.
How does repeated measures design work?
All participants experience both conditions of the experiment. The results from both conditions would be compared.
What is the definition of matched pairs (MP) design?
Pairs of participants are first matched on certain variables that may affect the dependent variable. Then one member of the pair is assigned to each condition.
How does matched pairs design work?
Participants are paired together on a variable/variables relevant to the experiment. Then one participant would be allocated to a different condition of the experiment.
[+ Pre-test matching is often used]
Why is a matched pairs design used?
As an attempt to control for the confounding variable of participant variables.
What are the strengths of independent groups design?
1- Order effects are avoided.
2- Participants are less likely to be affected by demand characteristics.
3- The same stimulus material can be used for all participants.
How are order effects avoided in independent groups design and why is this a strength?
Participants only take part in one condition = their performance in one condition will not improve/decrease their performance in the other condition. Strength = increases the internal validity of the study.
How are participants less likely to be affected by demand characteristics in independent groups design and why is this a strength?
Participants are only in one condition = exposed to fewer cues than with a repeated measures design. Strength = increase internal validity.
How can the same stimulus material be used for all participants in independent groups design and why is this a strength?
Different participants in each condition so the exact same stimuli can be used in both conditions = p.ps are exposed to materials that are equally as easy/challenging. Strength = increases the internal validity.
What are the limitations of independent groups design?
1- Participant variables might confound the results.
2- More time consuming than repeated measures to gather the sample.
How might participant variables confound the results in independent groups design and why is this a limitation?
Different participants in each condition = the DV may be influenced by the specific characteristics of the individuals in each condition (rather than the IV). Limitation = reduces the internal validity of the study.
How is it more time consuming to gather the sample in independent groups design and why is this a limitation?
Different participants in each condition = twice as many participants are needed (than RM design). Limitation = much more time consuming to gather the sample.
How might the problem of participant variables be addressed in independent groups design?
Random allocation = p.ps should be randomly allocated to the different experimental conditions.
What does random allocation (in independent groups design) attempt to do?
Evenly distribute participant characteristics across the conditions of the experiment using random techniques.
What are the strengths of repeated measures design?
1- Participant variables do not confound the results.
2- Less time consuming to select participants (compared to IG design).
How do participants variables not confound the results in repeated measures design and why is this a strength?
Same participants are used in all conditions = any difference in the DV cannot be due to differences between participants + more likely to be the effect of the IV. Strength = increases internal validity of the study.
What are the limitations of repeated measures design?
1- Demand characteristics are more likely to affect the results.
2- The same stimulus material cannot be used for all participants.
3- More time consuming to CONDUCT the study.
How is it less time consuming to select participants in repeated measures design and why is this a strength?
Same participants are used in all conditions of the experiment = fewer p.ps are needed. Strength = increases the internal validity of the study.
How might order effects in repeated measures design be overcome and why/how?
Counterbalancing - they are used to evenly distribute order effects.
How are demand characteristics more likely to affect the results in repeated measures design and why is this a limitation?
Same participants are used in all conditions = exposed to more cues = more likely to be affected by demand characteristics. Limitation = reduces the internal validity of the study.
How can the same stimulus material not be used for all participants in repeated measures design and why is this a limitation?
Same p.p in each condition = the exact same material cannot be used in both conditions = p.ps may not be exposed to materials that are equally as easy/challenging. Limitation = decreases internal validity of the study.
How may order effects confound the results in repeated measures design and why is this a limitation?
Order effects = factors that relate to the order in which p.ps experience the conditions = may improve/reduce their performance in one of the conditions. Limitation = decreases internal validity of the study.
Examples of order effects?
1- Practice effects = p.ps perform better in the second condition because they’ve done it before + have practiced the task.
2- Fatigue = p.ps get tired + scores decline in the second condition.
3- Boredom = p.ps get sick of the experiment + stop concentrating so perform worse in the second condition.
How does counterbalancing work?
Half the participants would be randomly allocated to Condition A THEN Condition B.
The other half would be randomly allocated to Condition B THEN Condition A.
How else can counterbalancing be known?
The AB-BA (ABBA) procedure.
What are the reasons for using counterbalancing?
1- Controls the impact of order effects.
2- Allows order effects to be distributed evenly across both conditions.
3- Making each condition of the IV occur as the first task + second task equally.
How is randomisation used with counterbalancing?
Order that participants complete the condition in is randomised to try and reduce influence of researcher.
What are the strengths of matched pairs design?
1- Participant variables are less likely to affect the results (than with IG design).
2- Order effects are avoided.
3- Participants are less likely to be affected by demand characteristics.
How are participant variables less likely to affect the results in matched pairs design and why is this a strength?
Participants are matched on important variables = any difference in the DV is unlikely to be due to participant variables + more likely to be the effect of the IV. Strength = increases the internal validity of the study.
How are order effects avoided in matched pairs design and why is this a strength?
Participants are only in one condition = their performance in one condition will not improve/decrease their performance in the other conditions. Strength = increases internal validity of the study.
How are participants less likely to be affected by demand characteristics in matched pairs design and why is this a strength?
Participants are only in one condition = exposed to fewer cues (than with a RM design) = less like to be affected by demand characteristics. Strength = increases internal validity of the study.
What are the limitations of matched pairs design?
1- Difficult and time consuming to match participants.
2- More time consuming than repeated measures to gather the sample.
How is it difficult and time consuming to match participants in matched pairs design and why is this a limitation?
Researcher must conduct preliminary studies so that each participant in 1 condition is appropriately matched with one in the other condition = can be difficult if there are a number of relevant factors that would need to be controlled. Limitation = can be very time consuming + quite expensive for the researcher to carry these out.
How is it more time consuming than RM design to gather the sample in matched pairs design and why is this a limitation?
Different participants in each condition = twice as many participants are needed than for a RM design. Limitation = much more time consuming to gather the sample.
What is the mean?
The arithmetic average - calculated by adding all the values together + dividing the total by the number of scores.
What are the advantages of the mean?
1- The mean can be said to be the most representative of all that data collected as it is calculated using all the individual values.
2- The mean is the most sensitive measure as it uses all values in a set of data.
What is the weakness of the mean?
Can be unrepresentative of the data set if there are extreme values (outliers).
What is the mode?
The value in a set of scores that occurs most frequently.
What is the advantage of the mode?
Not affected by outlying values (anomalous results).
What are the weaknesses of the mode?
1- Does not make use of all the available data.
2- There can be more than one and so is not always a useful way to describe data.
What is the median?
The middle value of a set of numbers that has been placed in numerical order.
What is the advantage of the median?
Not affected by outlying values (anomalous results) as it only takes the middle value(s).
What are the weaknesses of the median?
1- Doesn’t make use of all available data + therefore is not as sensitive as the mean.
2- Doesn’t represent all the findings.
3- Any outlier/extreme values would be ignored + would not form part of the average measurement.
4- Doesn’t work well with small sets of data.
5- It can be unrepresentative of a set of data.
What is the range?
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a given set of data.
What is the advantage of the range?
Quick and easy to calculate.
What are the weaknesses of the range?
1- More affected by extreme scores compared to the standard deviation.
2- Doesn’t take into account of the distance of all the scores from the mean.
What is standard deviation?
A measure of the variability of a set of scores around its mean. (How varied the scores are/how consistent they are to the mean).
What does small standard deviation show?
That the scores were quite close to the mean - results are not greatly affected by individual differences.
What does large standard deviation show?
The scores were not very close to the mean - results are affected by individual differences.
What are the advantages of standard deviation?
1- SD is not easily distorted by extreme scores.
2- SD takes into account the distance of each score from the mean.
3- SD uses every piece of data/value collected.
What is the weakness of standard deviation?
Can be affected by outlying scores - but not as much as the range.
What is an aim?
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate - the purpose of the study.
What is a research hypothesis?
A general prediction about what the researcher expects to happen or find out in an investigation.
What should a scientific hypothesis be?
1- Operationalised = clear and stated in well-defined terms.
2- Testable = a research study could show whether it is correct or wrong.
What is the aim related to + what is the general aim of an experiment?
Related to the research question a researcher is trying to answer. The aim of an experiment is to test a hypothesis.
How should an aim be written?
Begins with ‘To investigate…’ + should be operationalised.
What is a directional hypothesis/one-tailed hypothesis?
Predicts the way one variable will affect another in the study. Predicts the direction of the results.
When should a directional hypothesis be used?
There is past research indicating the likely direction of the effect (or similar) and the researcher can therefore be confident that the same result will be found.
How should a directional hypothesis be written?
Starts with ‘Participants who…’. Includes the order of: IV,DV,IV - all should be operationalised.
How is a correlational directional hypothesis written?
Begins with ‘There will be a positive correlation between…’ or ‘There will be a negative correlation between…’.
How is a correlational non-directional hypothesis?
Begins with ‘There will be a correlation between…’.
What is a non-directional/two-tailed hypothesis?
Non-directional hypotheses are not specific in what they predict.
When should a non-directional hypothesis be used?
When previous studies have not shown a similar effect/contradictory evidence or there is no previous research and the researcher is therefore not confident about the outcome of their own study.
How should a non-directional hypothesis be written?
Begins with ‘There will be a difference…’. Includes the order of: DV,IV,IV - all operationalised.
What is a null hypothesis?
Written like non-directional hypotheses, but predict that there will be NO difference between two conditions of the IV in relation to the DV of state that there will be no correlation.
When is a null hypothesis used?
When previous studies have not shown a similar effect or there is no previous research + the researcher is therefore not confident about the outcome of their own study.
How should a null hypothesis be written?
Begins with ‘There will be no difference’. Includes the order: DV,IV,IV.
How should a correlation null hypothesis be written?
Begins with ‘There will be no correlation…’.
What is primary data?
Information that has been obtained first-hand by a researcher for the purpose of a research project.
How is primary data gathered?
Often gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation.
What is secondary data?
Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project.
/
Data that already exists from a previous study but is being used within the current investigation.
What might secondary data include?
The work of other psychologists or government statistics.
What is meta-analysis?
A statistical technique for analysing secondary data.
What does meta-analysis involve?
The researcher reviews data from lots of smaller studies investigating the same aim.
The researcher identifies recurring trends across the studies and provides an overview of the findings.
Advantage of meta-analysis?
Allows us to create a larger, more varied sample and results can then be generalised across much larger populations, increasing validity.
Weakness of meta-analysis?
May be prone to publication bias = the researcher may not select all relevant studies, choosing to leave out those studies with negative or non-significant results = the conclusion from the meta-analysis will be bias as they only represent some of the relevant data.
What is qualitative data?
Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical (although qualitative data may be converted to numbers for the purpose of analysis).
What is quantitative data?
Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers.
Advantages of qualitative data?
Offers a researcher much more richness of detail (than quantitative) - it is much broader in scope + gives the p.p the opportunity to fully report their thoughts, feelings and opinions on a given subject = tends to have greater external validity.
Weakness of qualitative data?
Difficult to analyse. It tends not to lend itself to being summarised statistically so that patterns + comparisons within and between data may be hard to identify.
Conclusions often rely on the subjective interpretations of the researcher + may be subject to bias.
Advantages of quantitative data?
Relatively simple to analyse = comparisons between groups can be easily drawn + data in numerical form tends to be more objective and less open to bias.
Weakness of quantitative data?
Much narrower in meaning and detail than qualitative data = may fail to represent ‘real life’.
Advantages of primary data?
Authentic data obtained from the p.ps themselves for the purpose of a particular investigation. Questionnaires/interviews, for instance, can be designed in such a way that they specifically target the info that the researcher requires.
Weakness of primary data?
Requires time and effort on the part of the researcher. (E.g), conducting an experiment requires considerable planning, preparation + resources = limitation compared to secondary data.
Advantages of secondary data?
May be inexpensive and easily accessed requiring minimal effort.
When examining SD - the researcher may find that the desired info already exists + so there is no need to conduct primary data collection.
Weakness of secondary data?
May be substantial variation in the quality + accuracy of secondary data. Info may be outdated or incomplete. The content of the data may not quite match the researchers needs or objectives = may challenge the validity of any conclusions.
What is an experimental method?
Involves the manipulation of an IV to measure to measure the effect on the DV - experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi.
What is operationalisation?
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured to allow for a procedure to be replicated + is essential in establishing reliability.
Why are control groups used in experiments?
For the purpose of comparison - if the change in behaviour of the experimental group is significantly greater than that of the control group, then the researcher can conclude that the cause of this effect was the IV.
What is an extraneous variable?
Any variable, other than the IV, that may affect the DV if it is not controlled. EVs are essentially nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV - e.g age of p.ps, lighting of the lab.
What is a confounding variable?
A kind of EV that DO vary systematically with the IV - therefore, we can’t tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable.
What are demand characteristics?
Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by p.ps as revealing the purpose of an investigation = may lead to a p.p changing their behaviour within the research situation.
What is a significant extraneous variable?
Participant reactivity - very difficult to control.
What is the ‘please-U effect’ + ‘screw-U effect’?
- ‘Please-U’ = p.ps may act in a way that they think is expected and over-perform to please the experimenter.
- ‘Screw-U’ = may deliberately under-perform to sabotage the results of the study.
What are investigator effects?
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV) - may include everything from the design on the study to the selection of, and interaction with, p.ps during the research process.
What else may investigator effects include?
Expectancy effects, unconscious cues -> the materials used, the instructions, leading questions.
What is randomisation?
The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and decide the order of experimental conditions - an attempt to control investigator effects.
Examples of randomisation?
In an experiment that involves a word list - order of the words on the list should be randomly generated -> in an experiment with multiple conditions, the order of the conditions should be randomly generated.
What is standardisation?
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all p.ps in a research study - includes standardised instructions that are read to all p.ps.
Why is standardisation important?
Means that non-standardised changes in procedure do not act as extraneous variables.
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV + records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of EVs.
What is a field experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV + records the effects on the DV.
What is a natural experiment?
An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher (natural IV), in a natural setting + the researcher records the effect on the DV.
What is a quasi experiment?
A type experiment where the IV is pre-existing/naturally occurring (e.g, age/gender) but the researcher manipulates the task that the p.ps are required to complete - under controlled conditions.
Strengths of laboratory experiments?
- Control over EVs = confident the IV is affecting the DV = internal validity.
- Replicability = standardised procedures = results have high external reliability.
Limitations of laboratory experiments?
- Demand characteristics & investigator effects = decreases internal validity.
- Low eco. validity = low mundane realism = decreases external validity.
Strengths of field experiments?
- High eco. validity = real world setting = high mundane realism = increases external validity.
- Reduces demand characteristics = increases the internal validity.
Limitations of field experiments?
- Low control over EVs = researcher cannot be confident that IV is affecting the DV = limits internal validity.
- Difficult to replicate = difficult to test the external reliability of results.
- Unethical = researcher does not obtain informed consent.
Strengths of natural experiments?
- High eco. validity = IV + DV occur naturally = increases external validity.
- Reduction of demand characteristics = natural behaviour = increases the internal validity.
- Ethical method for socially sensitive research = can study variables which would be unethical to manipulate in a lab experiment = provides insight into certain topics that couldnt be in any other way.
Limitations of natural experiments?
- Low control over EVs = researcher cannot be confident that IV is affecting the DV = limits internal validity.
- Difficult to replicate = difficult to test the external reliability of results
Strengths of quasi experiments?
- Control over EVs = confident the IV is affecting the DV = internal validity.
- Replicability = standardised procedures = results have high external reliability.
Limitations of quasi experiments?
- Potentially reduced eco. validity (depending on the task) = if task is manipulated/very artificial = low mundane realism = reduces the external validity.
- Lower control over EVs (than a lab experiment) = as the researcher doesnt manipulate the IV = cannot be certain that the IV is affecting the DV or if CVs are contributing = reduces the internal validity.
What are ethical issues?
These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of p.ps in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid + worthwile data.
What are the 6 ethical issues in psychology?
1- (Informed) Consent.
2- Deception.
3- Confidentiality + privacy.
4- Debrief.
5- Withdrawal/Right to withdraw from investigation.
6- Protection of p.ps from harm.
What is the informed consent issue?
Whenever possible, the investigator should inform p.ps about all aspects of the study including: aims + procedures, p.ps’ rights + what their data will be used for -> p.ps should make an informed judgment without feeling coerced/obliged to take part.
How to deal with informed consent issue?
A consent form must be completed by all p.ps - includes: aim + procedures of the study, p.ps’ rights (right to withdraw) + what their data will be used for -> if the p.p agrees they should sign + date the consent form - under 16 = consent from parent/guardian.
What is the deception issue?
Researchers arent allowed to deliberately mislead/withhold information from p.ps about any aspect of the study - includes providing inadequate info for p.ps to make an informed decision about their participation in a study.
How to deal with deception issue?
Give p.ps as much info as possible in the standardised instructions + consent form + make sure that all details of the study are provided in the debrief, e.g the true aim -> at the end of the study p.ps should be given a full debrief where they are maid aware of the deception + given the RTW.
What are the different types OTHER than informed consent?
- Presumptive consent = asking people who are similar to p.ps whether they would consider the research to be acceptable to take part in.
- Prior general = asking people who volunteer to take part in research general qs before they are used.
- Retrospective consent = giving p.ps a full debriefing after the study + asking them to consent to their results being used now they know all aspects of the study.
What is the confidentiality issue?
Under the Data Protection Act p.ps have the right to have any personal data protected - any information obtained about the p.p during an investigation is confidential (unless otherwise agreed) + p.ps have a right to privacy = not naming institutions and/or geographical locations in the report.
How to deal with confidentiality issue?
The researcher must ensure that all personal details are protected + (in most instances) not even recorded -> the researcher should not name p.ps (instead referred to as Participant 1,2,3..) - p.ps should be reminded in the consent form, standardised instructions + debrief that their anonyminity will be maintained.
What is the debrief issue?
Following any study p.ps should be debrief - serves 3 functions: should be used to complete the p.ps understanding of the study, allows the researcher to monitor any unforseen negative effects of the study, should be used to find out if anything has upset the p.p -> the p.p should leave the study the same way they entered it.
How to deal with debrief issue?
Fully debrief each p.p after the study + allow p.ps to ask questions/clarify their participation -> should include: aims + procedures of the study, remind the p.ps of their rights + explain to them what their data will be used for - under 16 = parents should also be debriefed.
What is the right to withdraw issue?
From the beginning of the study, investigators should make it clear to p.ps that they can stop their participation in the study at any point - includes telling the researcher that they dont want their results to be used once the research is completed.
How to deal with right to withdraw issue?
Ensure that the p.ps are reminded of their RTW in the consent form, standardised instructions + the debrief -> + ensure that the procedure does not make p.ps feel that they are forced to continue - under 16 = parents/guardians should also be informed about RTW.
What is the protection of p.ps from harm issue?
Its the researcher’s responsibility to ensure that they protect all p.ps from physical + psychological harm during the investigation - including embarrassment, feelings of inadequacy, induced stress/pressure.
How to deal with protection of p.ps from harm issue?
The researcher must make sure that their procedure is safe + that p.ps will not suffer any physical/psychological harm from their participation - must ensure p.ps are aware of their RTW -> the researcher must also carry out a debrief + ascertain if p.ps have experienced any harm throughout the study + offer counselling/refer p.ps to to a counsellor.
What is the BPS (British Psychological Society) code of ethics?
A quasi-legal document produced by the BPS that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with p.ps - the code is built around 4 major principles: respect, competence, responsibility + integrity.
What is a self-report technique?
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviour and/or experiences related to a given topic.
What are open questions + what do they tend to produce?
Does not have a fixed range of answers and respondents are free to answer in any way they wish - tends to produce qualitative data (wide range of answers - difficult to analyse).
What are closed questions + what do they tend to produce?
Offers a fixed number of responses - can produce qualitative data (‘yes’/’no’) and quantitative data (1-10 scales) -> easy to analyse but may lack the depth + detail associated with open qs.
What is a questionnaire?
A set of written questions/items used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences.
What is an interview?
A ‘live’ encounter (faceto-face or on the phone) where one person (the interviewer) asks a set of questions to assess the interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences -> structured or unstructured or semi-structured.
What are structured interviews?
Interviews that are made up of a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order - like a questionnaire, but face-to-face in real time.
What are unstructured interviews?
Works a lot like a conversation - there are no set questions + there is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed + the interaction tends to be free-flowing -> the interviewee is encouraged to expand + elaborate their answers as prompted by the interviewer.
What are semi-structured interviews?
There is a list of questions that have been worked out in advance, but interviewers are also free to ask follow-up questions based on previous answers.
Strengths of questionnaires?
- Cost-effective -> they can gather large amounts of data quickly because they can be distributed to large numbers of people.
- Can be completed without the researcher being present = reduces effort + investigator effects.
- Data collected is usually straightforward to analyse -> the data lends itself to statistical analysis + comparison between groups of people w/ charts/graphs.
Limitations of questionnaires?
- The responses given may not always be true -> social desirability bias.
- Questionnaires often produce a response bias (responding in a similar way - e.g always ticking ‘yes’) = impacts the validity of the results.
Strength of structured interviews?
Straightforward to replicate due to their standardised format - also reduces differences between interviewers.
Limitation of structured interviews?
Not possible for interviewers to deviate from the topic or explain their questions + this will limit the richness of the data collected as well as limit unexpected information.
Strength of unstructured interviews?
Much more flexibility (than a structured interview) - the interviewer can follow up on points + is much more likely to gain insight into the worldview of the interviewee.
Limitations of unstructured interviews?
- More flexibility = may result in interviewer bias.
- Analysis of data from an unstructured interview is not straightforward.
- There is a risk that interviewees may lie for reasons of social desirability bias.
What are open questions?
Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish.
What are close questions?
Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter.
How are interviews designed?
Most involve a standardised interview schedule (reduces interviewer bias) + the interviewer will take notes/record the interview - typically in a quiet room -> usually begin the interview with some neutral questions + the interviewee should be reminded that their answers will be treated in the strictest confidence.
How to write good questions on a questionnaire?
- Avoid the overuse of jargon = clarity for the person answering.
- Avoid emotive language + leading questions.
- Avoid double-barrelled questions and double negatives = clarity.
When constructing a questionnaire, what should the researcher consider?
- Aim of the study.
- Length of the questionnaire.
- Previous questionnaires (use previous questionnaires).
- Question format.
- Use a pilot study.
- Measurement scales.
What is peer review?
The process by which psychological research papers, before publication in a journal, are subjected to independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in a similar field who consider the research in terms of its validity, significance + originality.
What are the main aims of peer review?
1- To allocate research funding -> also decides whether or not to award funding for a proposed research project.
2- To validate the quality + relevance of the research - all elements are assessed: the formulation of the hypothesis, the methodology, the statistical tests + conclusions drawn.
3- To suggest amendments or improvements - minor revisions or they may conclude that the work is inappropriate for publication + should be withdrawn.
What are the four options for reviewers to recommend after reviewing a researcher’s work?
1- Accept the work unconditionally.
2- Accept it so long as the researcher improves it in certain ways.
3- Reject it but suggest revisions + a resubmission.
4- Reject it outright.
What are the steps of peer review to validate new knowledge?
1- Psychologists who want their research published sent their report manuscript to a journal.
2- The editor of the journal examines the topic + sends copies to other psychologists who are experts in that topic = the peer reviewers.
3- The peer reviewers read the manuscript + assess all aspects.
4- They send it back to the editor with comments + a reccomendation abt its suitability for publication.
5- The editor then has to decide whether the research should be accepted for publication/revised/rejected.
Why is peer review important?
- Checks the validity, credibility + quality of the research -> also assesses the appropriateness of the design + methodology.
- Prevents dissemination of irrelevant findings/unwarranted claims/unacceptable interpretations/personal views + deliberate fraud = improves quality.
- Increases the probability of weaknesses/errors being identified (researchers/authors are less objective abt their own work).
What are the 3 types of reviews in peer reviews?
1- Single-blind review.
2- Double-blind review.
3- Open review.
What is single-blind review?
(Usual form of PR) - involves the names of reviewers not being revealed to the researcher -> anonymity allows for unbiased review - danger that anonymous reviewers may purposely delay the review process to allow them to publish similar research first/be undeservedly harsh.
What is double-blind review?
Involves both the reviewers + the researcher being anonymous -> bias based on the researcher’s ethinicity, gender, etc will not occur + that research will be peer reviewed fairly - it is likely that the researcher would be identifiable from the writing/research style.
What is open review?
Involves reviewers + researchers being known to each other -> reduces the risk of personal comments + plagarism - encourages open, honest peer reviewing - may be that deserved criticism is watered down due to politeness/fear.
Limitations of peer review?
- Problems of validation -> peer review may fail to detect fraudulent research - fabrication, falisfication + plagarism.
- Consistency with previous knowledge -> research that doesnt fit with previous work is often seen as suspect + can be rejected.
- Bias in peer reviews -> natural tendency for editors to want to publish significant findings - other research may be disregarded.
