Research Methods Y1

Question 1

What is the definition of a population?

Answer 1

A group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn.

Question 2

What is the definition of a sample?

Answer 2

A group of people who take part in a research investigation.

Question 3

Where is a sample drawn from?

Answer 3

From a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population.

Question 4

What is the definition of bias?

Answer 4

When certain groups are over- or under-represented within the sample selected.

Question 5

What is the negative effect of bias?

Answer 5

It limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.

Question 6

What is the definition of generalisation?

Answer 6

The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population.

Question 7

When is generalisation possible?

Answer 7

If the sample of participants is representative of the population.

Question 8

Why is it often called a ‘target population’?

Answer 8

It is a subset of the general population.

Question 9

Why are samples used?

Answer 9

For practical and economic reasons, it is usually not possible to include all members of a target population -> researcher uses a smaller group.

Question 10

What should samples ideally be and why?

Answer 10

Representative of the target population so that generalisation of findings become possible.

Question 11

Why is it often very difficult to represent populations?

Answer 11

Due to the inevitably diverse nature of populations, e.g, different age, ethnicity, gender.

Question 12

What are the 5 main sampling techniques?

Answer 12

Random sampling, Systematic sampling, Stratified sampling, Opportunity sampling, Volunteer sampling.

Question 13

Why are sampling techniques used?

Answer 13

In attempt to produce a representative sample.

Question 14

What is a random sample?

Answer 14

A form of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.

Question 15

What are the steps of random sampling?

Answer 15

1- Obtain a complete list of all members of the target population.

2- All the names of the list are assigned a number.

3- The actual sample is selected through the use of some lottery method - a computer/phone randomiser or picking numbers from a hat.

Question 16

What is a systematic sample?

Answer 16

When every nth member of the target population is selected.

Question 17

What is produced in systematic sampling and what is it?

Answer 17

A sampling frame - a list of people in the target population that are organised some way.

Question 18

What happens after a sampling frame is produced in systematic sampling?

Answer 18

A sampling system is nominated (e.g, every 3rd person) and the researcher then works through the sampling frame until the sample is complete.

Question 19

What is a stratified sample?

Answer 19

A form of sampling in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups within the target population/wider population.

Question 20

What are the steps of stratified sampling?

Answer 20

1- The researcher identifies the different strata that make up the population.

2- The proportions needed for the sample to be representative are worked out.

3- The participants that make up each stratum are selected using random sampling.

Question 21

What is an opportunity sample?

Answer 21

Where the researcher simply takes the chance to ask whoever is around at the time of their study to participate, e.g, in the street.

Question 22

What is a volunteer sample?

Answer 22

Involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample.

Question 23

How would a volunteer sample potentially be selected?

Answer 23

A researcher may place an advert in a newspaper or on a common room noticeboard.

Question 24

Strength of a random sample and why?

Answer 24

Potentially unbiased - means that confounding variables or extraneous variables should be equally divided between the different groups - enhancing internal validity.

Question 25

Limitation of a random sample and why?

Answer 25

Difficult and time consuming to conduct as a complete list of the target population may be difficult to obtain.

Question 26

Strength of a systematic sample and why?

Answer 26

It is objective, as once the system for selection has been established, the researcher has no influence over who is chosen.

Question 27

Limitation of a systematic sample and why?

Answer 27

Time-consuming, and in the end, participants may refuse to take part.

Question 28

Strength of a stratified sample and why?

Answer 28

Produces a largely representative sample, because it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of the population = generalisation of findings becomes possible.

Question 29

Limitation of a stratified sample and why?

Answer 29

It is not perfect. The identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different, so complete representation of the target population is not possible.

Question 30

Strength of an opportunity sample and why?

Answer 30

Convenient. Much less costly in terms of time and money as a list of members of the target population is not required + there is no need to divide the population into different strata (like in stratified).

Question 31

Limitation of an opportunity sample and why?

Answer 31

Suffers from two forms of bias.

1- The sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a very specific area.

2- The researcher has complete control over the selection of participants = researcher bias.

Question 32

Strengths of a volunteer sample and why?

Answer 32

Easy. It requires minimal input from the researcher and so is less time-consuming.

The researcher ends up with participants who are more engaged.

Question 33

Limitation of a volunteer sample and why?

Answer 33

Volunteer bias. Asking for volunteers may attract a certain ‘profile’ of person, that is, one who is curious and more likely to try to please the researcher.

Question 34

What is a case study and how is it usually carried out?

Answer 34

An in-depth study of one person or a group of people over time.
It is usually carried out in the real world and is usually longitudinal.

Question 35

What are the techniques used in a case study?

Answer 35

• IQ testing.
• Personality testing.
• Observations.
• Interviews.
• Experiments.
• Medical case notes.

Question 36

How are the findings of case studies organised?

Answer 36

Into themes to represent the individuals thoughts, emotions, experiences and abilities.

Question 37

How is data from a case study often presented?

Answer 37

In a qualitative way - though quantitative date may also be included, e.g, scores from psychological tests.

Question 38

What should be maintained in a case study and how?

Answer 38

Confidentiality. By making sure individuals are not identifiable - could be done by using a different name/initials, and by not publishing details of an address, ect.

Question 39

Advantages of case studies?

Answer 39

1- Rich data.
2- High ecological validity.
3- Investigates situations which could not be set up for ethical reasons.

Question 40

How are case studies rich in data and how is this a strength?

Answer 40

As case studies are usually longitudinal, a large amount of data is gathered over a long period of time. Strength = gives great depth and understanding of an individual/group.

Question 41

How do case studies have high ecological validity and how is this a strength?

Answer 41

Usually longitudinal and the p.p/group is often studied in their own environment. Strength = case studies have high external (ecological) validity.

Question 42

How do case studies investigate situations which could not be set up for ethical reasons and how is this a strength?

Answer 42

Often investigate naturally occurring events that would be unethical to test during an experiment. Strength = they can provide insight into areas of psychology that we wouldn’t be able to investigate in any other way.

Question 43

Limitations of case studies?

Answer 43

1- Findings cannot be generalised very easily to other individuals.
2- Difficult to replicate.
3- Researcher bias.

Question 44

How can case study findings not be easily generalised to other individuals and how is this a limitation?

Answer 44

Each individual/group and their experience is unique so case studies may only represent the behaviour of one group/person. Limitation = may be difficult to generalise the results to others.

Question 45

How are case studies difficult to replicate and how is this a limitation?

Answer 45

Case studies are very unique. Limitation = it is not possible to test the external reliability of the findings.

Question 46

How do case studies involve researcher bias and how is this a limitation?

Answer 46

Usually longitudinal, so researchers may get to know the individual well which may lead to a loss of objectivity. Limitation = if this were to happen it would reduce the internal validity of the study.

Question 47

What are investigator effects?

Answer 47

Any effect of the investigators behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (DV).

Question 48

What may investigator effects include?

Answer 48

Everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process.

Question 49

What is randomisation?

Answer 49

The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions.

Question 50

What is standardisation?

Answer 50

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.

Question 51

What is the definition of experimental design?

Answer 51

The different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.

Question 52

What is the definition of independent groups (IG) design?

Answer 52

Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.

Question 53

How does independent groups design work?

Answer 53

Two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment. The performance of the two groups would then be compared.

Question 54

What is the definition of repeated measures (RM) design?

Answer 54

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.

Question 55

How does repeated measures design work?

Answer 55

All participants experience both conditions of the experiment. The results from both conditions would be compared.

Question 56

What is the definition of matched pairs (MP) design?

Answer 56

Pairs of participants are first matched on certain variables that may affect the dependent variable. Then one member of the pair is assigned to each condition.

Question 57

How does matched pairs design work?

Answer 57

Participants are paired together on a variable/variables relevant to the experiment. Then one participant would be allocated to a different condition of the experiment.

[+ Pre-test matching is often used]

Question 58

Why is a matched pairs design used?

Answer 58

As an attempt to control for the confounding variable of participant variables.

Question 59

What are the strengths of independent groups design?

Answer 59

1- Order effects are avoided.
2- Participants are less likely to be affected by demand characteristics.
3- The same stimulus material can be used for all participants.

Question 60

How are order effects avoided in independent groups design and why is this a strength?

Answer 60

Participants only take part in one condition = their performance in one condition will not improve/decrease their performance in the other condition. Strength = increases the internal validity of the study.

Question 61

How are participants less likely to be affected by demand characteristics in independent groups design and why is this a strength?

Answer 61

Participants are only in one condition = exposed to fewer cues than with a repeated measures design. Strength = increase internal validity.

Question 62

How can the same stimulus material be used for all participants in independent groups design and why is this a strength?

Answer 62

Different participants in each condition so the exact same stimuli can be used in both conditions = p.ps are exposed to materials that are equally as easy/challenging. Strength = increases the internal validity.

Question 63

What are the limitations of independent groups design?

Answer 63

1- Participant variables might confound the results.
2- More time consuming than repeated measures to gather the sample.

Question 64

How might participant variables confound the results in independent groups design and why is this a limitation?

Answer 64

Different participants in each condition = the DV may be influenced by the specific characteristics of the individuals in each condition (rather than the IV). Limitation = reduces the internal validity of the study.

Question 65

How is it more time consuming to gather the sample in independent groups design and why is this a limitation?

Answer 65

Different participants in each condition = twice as many participants are needed (than RM design). Limitation = much more time consuming to gather the sample.

Question 66

How might the problem of participant variables be addressed in independent groups design?

Answer 66

Random allocation = p.ps should be randomly allocated to the different experimental conditions.

Question 67

What does random allocation (in independent groups design) attempt to do?

Answer 67

Evenly distribute participant characteristics across the conditions of the experiment using random techniques.

Question 68

What are the strengths of repeated measures design?

Answer 68

1- Participant variables do not confound the results.
2- Less time consuming to select participants (compared to IG design).

Question 69

How do participants variables not confound the results in repeated measures design and why is this a strength?

Answer 69

Same participants are used in all conditions = any difference in the DV cannot be due to differences between participants + more likely to be the effect of the IV. Strength = increases internal validity of the study.

Question 70

What are the limitations of repeated measures design?

Answer 70

1- Demand characteristics are more likely to affect the results.
2- The same stimulus material cannot be used for all participants.
3- More time consuming to CONDUCT the study.

Question 71

How is it less time consuming to select participants in repeated measures design and why is this a strength?

Answer 71

Same participants are used in all conditions of the experiment = fewer p.ps are needed. Strength = increases the internal validity of the study.

Question 72

How might order effects in repeated measures design be overcome and why/how?

Answer 72

Counterbalancing - they are used to evenly distribute order effects.

Question 73

How are demand characteristics more likely to affect the results in repeated measures design and why is this a limitation?

Answer 73

Same participants are used in all conditions = exposed to more cues = more likely to be affected by demand characteristics. Limitation = reduces the internal validity of the study.

Question 74

How can the same stimulus material not be used for all participants in repeated measures design and why is this a limitation?

Answer 74

Same p.p in each condition = the exact same material cannot be used in both conditions = p.ps may not be exposed to materials that are equally as easy/challenging. Limitation = decreases internal validity of the study.

Question 75

How may order effects confound the results in repeated measures design and why is this a limitation?

Answer 75

Order effects = factors that relate to the order in which p.ps experience the conditions = may improve/reduce their performance in one of the conditions. Limitation = decreases internal validity of the study.

Question 76

Examples of order effects?

Answer 76

1- Practice effects = p.ps perform better in the second condition because they’ve done it before + have practiced the task.
2- Fatigue = p.ps get tired + scores decline in the second condition.
3- Boredom = p.ps get sick of the experiment + stop concentrating so perform worse in the second condition.

Question 77

How does counterbalancing work?

Answer 77

Half the participants would be randomly allocated to Condition A THEN Condition B.
The other half would be randomly allocated to Condition B THEN Condition A.

Question 78

How else can counterbalancing be known?

Answer 78

The AB-BA (ABBA) procedure.

Question 79

What are the reasons for using counterbalancing?

Answer 79

1- Controls the impact of order effects.
2- Allows order effects to be distributed evenly across both conditions.
3- Making each condition of the IV occur as the first task + second task equally.

Question 80

How is randomisation used with counterbalancing?

Answer 80

Order that participants complete the condition in is randomised to try and reduce influence of researcher.

Question 81

What are the strengths of matched pairs design?

Answer 81

1- Participant variables are less likely to affect the results (than with IG design).
2- Order effects are avoided.
3- Participants are less likely to be affected by demand characteristics.

Question 82

How are participant variables less likely to affect the results in matched pairs design and why is this a strength?

Answer 82

Participants are matched on important variables = any difference in the DV is unlikely to be due to participant variables + more likely to be the effect of the IV. Strength = increases the internal validity of the study.

Question 83

How are order effects avoided in matched pairs design and why is this a strength?

Answer 83

Participants are only in one condition = their performance in one condition will not improve/decrease their performance in the other conditions. Strength = increases internal validity of the study.

Question 84

How are participants less likely to be affected by demand characteristics in matched pairs design and why is this a strength?

Answer 84

Participants are only in one condition = exposed to fewer cues (than with a RM design) = less like to be affected by demand characteristics. Strength = increases internal validity of the study.

Question 85

What are the limitations of matched pairs design?

Answer 85

1- Difficult and time consuming to match participants.
2- More time consuming than repeated measures to gather the sample.

Question 86

How is it difficult and time consuming to match participants in matched pairs design and why is this a limitation?

Answer 86

Researcher must conduct preliminary studies so that each participant in 1 condition is appropriately matched with one in the other condition = can be difficult if there are a number of relevant factors that would need to be controlled. Limitation = can be very time consuming + quite expensive for the researcher to carry these out.

Question 87

How is it more time consuming than RM design to gather the sample in matched pairs design and why is this a limitation?

Answer 87

Different participants in each condition = twice as many participants are needed than for a RM design. Limitation = much more time consuming to gather the sample.

Question 88

What is the mean?

Answer 88

The arithmetic average - calculated by adding all the values together + dividing the total by the number of scores.

Question 89

What are the advantages of the mean?

Answer 89

1- The mean can be said to be the most representative of all that data collected as it is calculated using all the individual values.
2- The mean is the most sensitive measure as it uses all values in a set of data.

Question 90

What is the weakness of the mean?

Answer 90

Can be unrepresentative of the data set if there are extreme values (outliers).

Question 91

What is the mode?

Answer 91

The value in a set of scores that occurs most frequently.

Question 92

What is the advantage of the mode?

Answer 92

Not affected by outlying values (anomalous results).

Question 93

What are the weaknesses of the mode?

Answer 93

1- Does not make use of all the available data.
2- There can be more than one and so is not always a useful way to describe data.

Question 94

What is the median?

Answer 94

The middle value of a set of numbers that has been placed in numerical order.

Question 95

What is the advantage of the median?

Answer 95

Not affected by outlying values (anomalous results) as it only takes the middle value(s).

Question 96

What are the weaknesses of the median?

Answer 96

1- Doesn’t make use of all available data + therefore is not as sensitive as the mean.
2- Doesn’t represent all the findings.
3- Any outlier/extreme values would be ignored + would not form part of the average measurement.
4- Doesn’t work well with small sets of data.
5- It can be unrepresentative of a set of data.

Question 97

What is the range?

Answer 97

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a given set of data.

Question 98

What is the advantage of the range?

Answer 98

Quick and easy to calculate.

Question 99

What are the weaknesses of the range?

Answer 99

1- More affected by extreme scores compared to the standard deviation.
2- Doesn’t take into account of the distance of all the scores from the mean.

Question 100

What is standard deviation?

Answer 100

A measure of the variability of a set of scores around its mean. (How varied the scores are/how consistent they are to the mean).

Question 101

What does small standard deviation show?

Answer 101

That the scores were quite close to the mean - results are not greatly affected by individual differences.

Question 102

What does large standard deviation show?

Answer 102

The scores were not very close to the mean - results are affected by individual differences.

Question 103

What are the advantages of standard deviation?

Answer 103

1- SD is not easily distorted by extreme scores.
2- SD takes into account the distance of each score from the mean.
3- SD uses every piece of data/value collected.

Question 104

What is the weakness of standard deviation?

Answer 104

Can be affected by outlying scores - but not as much as the range.

Question 105

What is an aim?

Answer 105

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate - the purpose of the study.

Question 106

What is a research hypothesis?

Answer 106

A general prediction about what the researcher expects to happen or find out in an investigation.

Question 107

What should a scientific hypothesis be?

Answer 107

1- Operationalised = clear and stated in well-defined terms.
2- Testable = a research study could show whether it is correct or wrong.

Question 108

What is the aim related to + what is the general aim of an experiment?

Answer 108

Related to the research question a researcher is trying to answer. The aim of an experiment is to test a hypothesis.

Question 109

How should an aim be written?

Answer 109

Begins with ‘To investigate…’ + should be operationalised.

Question 110

What is a directional hypothesis/one-tailed hypothesis?

Answer 110

Predicts the way one variable will affect another in the study. Predicts the direction of the results.

Question 111

When should a directional hypothesis be used?

Answer 111

There is past research indicating the likely direction of the effect (or similar) and the researcher can therefore be confident that the same result will be found.

Question 112

How should a directional hypothesis be written?

Answer 112

Starts with ‘Participants who…’. Includes the order of: IV,DV,IV - all should be operationalised.

Question 113

How is a correlational directional hypothesis written?

Answer 113

Begins with ‘There will be a positive correlation between…’ or ‘There will be a negative correlation between…’.

Question 114

How is a correlational non-directional hypothesis?

Answer 114

Begins with ‘There will be a correlation between…’.

Question 115

What is a non-directional/two-tailed hypothesis?

Answer 115

Non-directional hypotheses are not specific in what they predict.

Question 116

When should a non-directional hypothesis be used?

Answer 116

When previous studies have not shown a similar effect/contradictory evidence or there is no previous research and the researcher is therefore not confident about the outcome of their own study.

Question 117

How should a non-directional hypothesis be written?

Answer 117

Begins with ‘There will be a difference…’. Includes the order of: DV,IV,IV - all operationalised.

Question 118

What is a null hypothesis?

Answer 118

Written like non-directional hypotheses, but predict that there will be NO difference between two conditions of the IV in relation to the DV of state that there will be no correlation.

Question 119

When is a null hypothesis used?

Answer 119

When previous studies have not shown a similar effect or there is no previous research + the researcher is therefore not confident about the outcome of their own study.

Question 120

How should a null hypothesis be written?

Answer 120

Begins with ‘There will be no difference’. Includes the order: DV,IV,IV.

Question 121

How should a correlation null hypothesis be written?

Answer 121

Begins with ‘There will be no correlation…’.

Question 122

What is primary data?

Answer 122

Information that has been obtained first-hand by a researcher for the purpose of a research project.

Question 123

How is primary data gathered?

Answer 123

Often gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation.

Question 124

What is secondary data?

Answer 124

Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project.
/
Data that already exists from a previous study but is being used within the current investigation.

Question 125

What might secondary data include?

Answer 125

The work of other psychologists or government statistics.

Question 126

What is meta-analysis?

Answer 126

A statistical technique for analysing secondary data.

Question 127

What does meta-analysis involve?

Answer 127

The researcher reviews data from lots of smaller studies investigating the same aim.
The researcher identifies recurring trends across the studies and provides an overview of the findings.

Question 128

Advantage of meta-analysis?

Answer 128

Allows us to create a larger, more varied sample and results can then be generalised across much larger populations, increasing validity.

Question 129

Weakness of meta-analysis?

Answer 129

May be prone to publication bias = the researcher may not select all relevant studies, choosing to leave out those studies with negative or non-significant results = the conclusion from the meta-analysis will be bias as they only represent some of the relevant data.

Question 130

What is qualitative data?

Answer 130

Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical (although qualitative data may be converted to numbers for the purpose of analysis).

Question 131

What is quantitative data?

Answer 131

Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers.

Question 132

Advantages of qualitative data?

Answer 132

Offers a researcher much more richness of detail (than quantitative) - it is much broader in scope + gives the p.p the opportunity to fully report their thoughts, feelings and opinions on a given subject = tends to have greater external validity.

Question 133

Weakness of qualitative data?

Answer 133

Difficult to analyse. It tends not to lend itself to being summarised statistically so that patterns + comparisons within and between data may be hard to identify.
Conclusions often rely on the subjective interpretations of the researcher + may be subject to bias.

Question 134

Advantages of quantitative data?

Answer 134

Relatively simple to analyse = comparisons between groups can be easily drawn + data in numerical form tends to be more objective and less open to bias.

Question 135

Weakness of quantitative data?

Answer 135

Much narrower in meaning and detail than qualitative data = may fail to represent ‘real life’.

Question 136

Advantages of primary data?

Answer 136

Authentic data obtained from the p.ps themselves for the purpose of a particular investigation. Questionnaires/interviews, for instance, can be designed in such a way that they specifically target the info that the researcher requires.

Question 137

Weakness of primary data?

Answer 137

Requires time and effort on the part of the researcher. (E.g), conducting an experiment requires considerable planning, preparation + resources = limitation compared to secondary data.

Question 138

Advantages of secondary data?

Answer 138

May be inexpensive and easily accessed requiring minimal effort.
When examining SD - the researcher may find that the desired info already exists + so there is no need to conduct primary data collection.

Question 139

Weakness of secondary data?

Answer 139

May be substantial variation in the quality + accuracy of secondary data. Info may be outdated or incomplete. The content of the data may not quite match the researchers needs or objectives = may challenge the validity of any conclusions.