Approaches Flashcards
Who was the first person to call himself a psychologist + what did he believe?
Wilhem Wundt - believed that all aspects of nature (including the mind) could be studied scientifically.
When + where did Wilhem establish the first psychology lab?
1879 - Leipzeg University, Germany.
What was Wundt known as?
The father of psychology.
What did Wundt promote?
The use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes.
What did Wundt’s work do?
It paved the way for later controlled research + the study of mental processes e.g by cognitive psychologists.
What is introspection?
The systematic analysis of one’s own conscious experience, thought processes, feelings, emotions and sensations.
What did introspection involve?
Training people to analyse and report in detail their inner thoughts and then break them down into separate parts.
When/where was introspection used in?
In carefully controlled lab conditions with researchers being presented with standardised tasks or stimuli, such as visual illusion.
What did Wundt claim?
That, with sufficient training, introspection can be used to systematically observe mental processes such as memory + perception.
What is structuralism?
Isolating the structure of consciousness -> breaking down + analysing an experience through its two main components: physical sensations + emotional feelings.
What was Wundt’s method of introspection?
In the lab at Liepzeg - Wundt + his colleagues recorded their own conscious thoughts with the aim of breaking these down into their constituent parts.
What were the researchers presented with in Wundt’s method?
Presented with carefully controlled stimuli (e.g visual images + auditory tones) and were asked to provide a description of the inner processes they were experiencing; they would report what they had experienced + their analysis of that experience.
How were the introspections recorded + what did this allow?
Recorded under strictly controlled conditions using the same stimulus every time (e.g a ticking metronome) + the same instructions were issued to all p.ps = allowed procedures to be repeated every time.
Who was John Watson + what did he criticise and why?
A psychologist -> criticised introspection for not being objective as it varied from person to person = so it became difficult to establish the general principles.
What did Watson propose?
That a truly scientific psychology should restrict itself to being empirical by studying phenomena that can be observed + from this principle stemmed the behaviourist approach.
What is ‘science’?
A means of acquiring knowledge though systematic and objective investigation - the aim is to discover general laws.
What is psychology considered today?
A scientific discipline + as such, uses a variety of methodologies, many of which are empirical + scientific.
What does the legacy of biological + physiological origins mean?
That many psychologists apply the scientific method to their work + use empirical methods to test their hypotheses -> not the case for all psychologists as some argue that there will always be an element of subjectivity.
What is FORE/the features of science?
Falsifiability, Objectivity, Reliability/Replicability, Empiricism.
What is falsifiability + when is it only possible?
When it is possible to prove a statement, hypothesis or theory wrong. Only possible if a study is replicable + the hypothesis is operationalised/testable.
What is objectivity?
If a piece of research is objective it is free from bias; based on observable phenomena; is not influenced by personal opinion, prejudice or emotion; is empirical + is available to other scientists to check and verify.
What is reliability/replicability?
The extent to which a study can be repeated so that the reliability of results can be judged. (Using the same standardised procedures and/or gaining similar results).
What is empiricism?
Empirical evidence is directly observable and is gathered through the senses. It can be verified by measurements + does not go beyond the boundaries of what can be observed.
What is theory construction and hypothesis testing + what does this mean?
In order to make scientific progress it must be possible to test and falsify a theory - therefore the theory needs to be rigid + the hypothesis/variables within studies must be operationalised.
What is a paradigm + what does each psychological approach have?
A paradigm is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns within a specific domain. Each approach has its own paradigm.
What is a paradigm shift?
A paradigm shift happens when a theory is falsified and a new paradigm is created that is based on the newly discovered information.
What does psychology not have?
A paradigm = there is NOT one unified agreed rule.
What do the behaviourist and SLT approaches believe we were born as?
‘Blank slates’ (= ‘Tabula Rasa’)
How does the behaviourist approach believe behaviour is learned (1st assumption)?
Behaviour is learned from experience - we are born a blank slate so there is no genetic influence on behaviour.
What behaviour does the behaviourist approach believe is measurable scientifically (2nd assumption)?
Only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically + it is only these behaviours that should be studied as thought processes are subjective and difficult to test.
How does the behaviourist approach believe objectivity is maintained (3rd assumption)?
Psychologists should use lab experiments as it is the best way to maintain objectivity.
What does the behaviourist approach believe the basic processes that govern learning are the same in (4th assumption)?
The basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species = it is therefore valid to study the behaviour of animals as they share the same principles of learning as humans.
What is classical conditioning + who can be classically conditioned?
Learning by association - both humans + animals can be classically conditioned.
What is the key idea of classical conditioning?
That learning occurs when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and reflex response - this response can be positive or negative.
What happens if the association of the stimulus is with a positive response (same w/ negative)?
Then that positive response will arise whenever the person comes into contact with that specific stimulus.
What is one of the most memorable ways that someone can be conditioned?
Is when they acquire a phobia = they will make an association between an object/situation and fear.
What is stimulus generalisation?
Any stimuli with similar characteristics as the originally associated stimulus will create a similar conditioned response.
Who was Pavlov + what did he do?
A psychologist whose research initially focused on the digestive system of dogs - he abandoned his early theological schooling to study science + he won the Nobel Prize in 1904.
Who was Pavlov inspired by?
The ideas of Charles Darwin and I.M. Sechenov.
How did Pavlov carry out his experiment into classical conditioning?
He repeatedly presented food to the dogs whilst at the same time ringing a bell - eventually, the animals began to salivate without food being presented = they salivated to the sound of a bell alone.
What was the UCS, UCR, NS, CS + CR in Pavlov’s experiment?
UCS = the food.
UCR = the dogs salivating.
NS = the sound of a bell.
CS = the sound of bell (after conditioning).
CR = the dogs salivation (after conditioning).
What did Pavlov’s experiment support?
Supported Pavlov’s hypothesis; and he consequently developed the notion of classical conditioning.
What did Pavlov argue about the NS?
If a NS (such as the sound of a bell) is repeatedly paired with an UCS (the food), the two become associated - the result of this is that the NS becomes a CS = able to cause the previously instinctive + now CR (salivation).
What is the other classical conditioning study?
Watson & Rayner’s 1920 study on a boy named ‘Little Albert’ who they classically conditioned to become phobic of rats = done by the presentation of an UCS (loud noise) at the same time as the rat (NS) = repeated several times.
How does operant conditioning work?
It works on the principle of learning by consequences (reinforcement) of one’s behaviour = reinforcement means something in the environment that strengthens behaviour + makes it more like to occur.
What are the 4 types of reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment + extinction.
What is positive reinforcement?
Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed = behaviour is more likely to reoccur if it is rewarded by positive consequences.
What is negative reinforcement?
Occurs when the individual is rewarded by avoiding something unpleasant = behaviour is more likely to reoccur if it is rewarded by the avoidance of negative consequences.
What is punishment?
An unpleasant consequence of a behaviour. Behaviour is less likely to reoccur if it results in negative consequences.
What is extinction?
Occurs when conditioning weakens (no more reward for behaviour).
Who was Skinner influenced by?
Thorndike’s work.
What are primary reinforcers?
Primary reinforcers are directly rewarding (e.g food).
What are secondary reinforcers?
Secondary reinforcers are only rewards because they lead to the primary reinforcer (e.g caregiver = gives food).
How did Skinner study operant conditioning?
By conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a ‘Skinner Box’.
How did Skinner show how positive reinforcement worked?
By placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box - the box contained a lever on the side + as the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever + a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever (positive reinforcement for the behaviour).
What did the rats learn in Skinner’s experiment through positive reinforcement?
They quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box = Skinner had conditioned the rats to engage in an unnatural (learned) behaviour of pushing a lever.
How did Skinner show how negative reinforcement worked?
By placing a rat in his Skinner box + then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused discomfort - as the rat moved around the box it would accidentally knock the lever + the electric current would be switched off (negative reinforcement).
What did the rats learn in Skinner’s experiment through negative reinforcement?
Learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box.
How did Skinner show how punishment worked?
Once the rat had been taught to press the lever Skinner trained it to cease this behaviour by electrifying the floor each time the lever was pressed.!
Who is Bandura?
A learning theorist but not strictly a behaviourist as his theory also considers the thought processes that underlie our behaviour.
What idea does Bandura challenge?
Bandura challenges Skinner’s idea that reward + punishment will prompt or stop a behaviour automatically.
What does Bandura argue instead?
Skinner argues that reinforcers + punishments merely inform the individual of likely consequences + it is down to the individual as to whether their behaviour is affected by the potential consequences.
What is Bandura’s theory sometimes referred to as + why?
As social cognitive theory - because it acknowledges mediational processes.
Where does the SLT approach believe we learn behaviour from (1st assumption)?
From the environment and thus genetics don’t influence behaviour.
How does the SLT approach believe we learn behaviour (2nd assumption)?
Learned from observing others (indirect learning) + the reinforcement or punishment they receive = on the back of these experiences individuals will decide whether to imitate the behaviour or not.
What is identification in SLT?
When an individual is influenced by another because they are in some way similar to that person or they wish to be like them (they identify with the model).
When are individuals much more like to imitate the behaviour of people?
If they identify with those people.
What are the factors influencing the choice of a model?
Same gender and ethnicity, higher status and greater expertise - identification does not occur unless there is a reason.
Who are young girls + boys likely to identify with?
Young girls are likely to identify with mum - young boys are likely to identify with dad.
What is imitation in SLT?
When an individual observes behaviour from a role model and copies it.
What are the key determinants of whether a behaviour is imitated?
The characteristics of a model, the observer’s ability to perform the behaviour + the observed consequences of the behaviour.
What is modelling in SLT?
Observing the behaviour of a role model.
Who might an individual observe + what do these models provide?
A live model e.g a parent, teacher, etc or they might copy a symbolic model e.g a character on T.V - these models might provide examples of behaviour that may be imitated at a later stage.
What is vicarious reinforcement in SLT?
This is the term used to describe the reinforcement the observer sees the model receiving - they do not receive the reward themselves; they see someone else get it.
What is a reinforcement, such as a reward, mean?
It makes a behaviour more likely to be imitated - It is more likely a rewarded behaviour is copied than a behaviour that is punished.
How is the SLT not strictly a behaviourist approach?
It does not look solely at behaviour - it also considers cognitive processes - the theory suggests there is some thought prior to imitation that intervenes between stimulus and response (mediational processes).
What are the 4 mediational processes documented by Bandura?
Attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.
What is the attention mediational process?
For a behaviour to be imitated we have to notice it - we observe behaviours on a daily basis + many of these are not noteworthy = attention is therefore pivotal to whether a behaviour is imitated.
What is the retention mediational process ( = cognitive element)?
The behaviour may be noticed, but it is not always remembered, which prevents imitation = it is important therefore that a memory of the behaviour is formed for it to be imitated later by the observer.
What is the motor reproduction mediational process?
We see lots of behaviour on a daily basis that we’d like to imitate, but that is not always possible - we are limited by our physical ability + even if we wish to reproduce the behaviour we cannot = this influences our decision whether to try and imitate or not.
What was the aim of Bandura, Ross & Ross’ research?
To examine if children will imitate an aggressive adult model + to discover the extent to which the gender of the model influences the child’s motivation to imitate.
Who were the participants in Bandura + Ross & Ross’ research + how many conditions were there overall?
36 males and 36 females aged 37 to 69 months.
8 conditions overall.
What is the motivation mediational process (= partial-cognitive element)?
The desire to perform the behaviour - rewards/punishments will be observed by the observer + if the percieved rewards outweigh the percieved costs then the observer will be more motivated to imitate it.
What was the method of Bandura + Ross & Ross’ research?
Half of the group of p.ps observed an aggressive role model (a male or female adult) + the other half observed a non-aggresive role model -> in the room, there was a Bobo Doll, a hammer + other toys - the aggressive model hit the Bobo doll with a hammer + shouted abuse - the non-agressive played with the toys + ignored the Bobo doll for roughly 10 mins.
What happened after the p.ps observed the aggressive/non-aggresive role models?
P.ps were taken into another room where they experienced aggression arousal -> p.ps were then taken into a neighbouring room with a Bobo Doll, a mallet, dart guns + ‘non aggressive toys’ -> p.ps were observed for 20 mins + researchers rated the extent that they imitated the model’s behaviour.
What was the layout of the aggressive condition in Bandura + Ross & Ross’ study?
1- 6 boys -> same sex model.
2- 6 boys -> opposite sex model.
3- 6 girls -> same sex model.
4- 6 girls -> opposite sex model.
What was the layout of the non-aggressive condition in Bandura + Ross & Ross’ study?
1- 6 boys -> same sex model.
2- 6 boys -> opposite sex model.
3- 6 girls -> same sex model.
4- 6 girls -> opposite sex model.
What were the results of Bandura + Ross & Ross’ study?
Children who had observed aggressive behaviour acted more aggressively; boys acted more aggressively than girls + there was also a greater level of imitation of same-sex role models.
What was the conclusion of Bandura + Ross & Ross’ research?
Children learn social behaviour such as aggression by observing the behaviours of others - most likely to happen when the behaviour is modelled by someone of the same gender.
What did Bandura’s follow up study (Bandura, Ross & Ross 1963) involve?
Children of 2 1/2 - 6 years watched a film of a model punching + screaming aggressively at a Bobo doll - 3 conditions: the film ended with a scene in which the model was rewarded, punished or ended right after the aggression scene.
What were the results of Bandura’s follow up study (Bandura, Ross & Ross 1963)?
When given their own Bobo doll to play with, the 1st group showed much more aggression, followed by the 3rd group then the 2nd.
What are the assumptions of the cognitive approach?
- Thought processes can be + should be studied scientifically + well controlled lab studies can investigate what we are thinking.
- The MIND works like a computer -> it has an input from our senses which it processes + produces an output.
- Stimulus + response is appropriate - only if the thought processes that occur between the S + R are acknowledged.
What is the cognitive approach (CA)?
Developed in the 1950s - focuses on how our mental processes, e.g thoughts, perceptions affect behaviour.
What are internal mental processes + how are they studied in the CA?
‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus + response -> these are studied in the cognitive approach by observing behaviour + making inferences - using the experimental method.
What is a schema?
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing - they are developed from experience.
What do schemas do + why are they useful?
Help the brain to organise + interpret information -> they allow us to process information quickly + to take shortcuts when interpreting data we deal with on a daily basis + allow us to predict what may happen in our world.
What does each individual have?
A distinctive set of schemas -> people from the same cultures often form similar schemas due to shared experienced + babies are born with innate schemas.
What do cognitive psychologists use to help them understand internal mental processes?
Theoretical and computer models = theories that can be represented as diagrams + can be used to provide testable hypotheses.
What is an important theoretical model + what does it suggest?
The information processing approach - suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages like a computer.
What are the information processing approach sequences?
Input = info from the environment gathered via the senses + is encoded -> Processing = the info, once encoded, is processed in the mind -> Output = the person responds through their behaviour.
What does the computer analogy suggest?
That the human MIND is like a computer -> this model uses the concepts of a central processing unit (the brain/mind), coding + the use of ‘stores’ to hold info.
Differences between computer and a brain?
- Computer recieves all input -> brain only pays attention to a very small anount of info input.
- A computer is emotionless -> emotions have a strong impact on the way our minds function.
- A computer only knows as much as the info which has been input -> the brain can try to piece together memories + fill in gaps.
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
What has happened in the last 20 years + what has this allowed for in psychologists?
Advances in brain imaging techniques (fMRI + PET scans) - enabled psychologists to systematically observe + describe the neurological basis of mental processes = led to a better understanding of a range of behaviours.
What do psychologists in cognitive neuroscience believe?
It is necessary to consider physiological reasons for thought + that the mind/computer analogy is important in understanding how we think + how the brain supports different cognitive activities + emotions by showing what parts become active.
What do cognitive neuroscientists study?
Neural processes underlying memory, attention, perception + awareness, social cognition + brain regions involved when we interact w/ others.
What are fMRIs?
Functional magnetic resonance imaging -> brain scanning technique that measures blood flow in the brain when a person performs a task.
What are PET scans?
Positron emission tomography -> scans for activity in the brain that shows up because of the presence of a radio-active glucose molecule tracer.
How do PET scans work?
Glucose is a source of energy for the brain - wherever energy is being used the tracers will build up + this will show up on the scan as a bright colour - this activity is then analysed to build up an overall picture.
How do fMRIs work?
fMRI works on the idea that neurons in the brain are the most active during a task that uses the most energy - increase in blood flow is a response to the need for more oxygen in that area of the brain when it becomes active = suggests increase in neural activity.
What is the biological approach (BA) ?
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritence + neural function.
What are the assumptions of the biological approach?
1- Genetics = the genes an individual possesses influence their behaviour.
2- Evolution = behaviour evolves through evolutionary adaptation.
3- The CNS = the main focus when explaining behaviour.
4- Biochemistry.
What is the neurochemical basis of behaviour - according to the BA?
Neurochemistry refers to the action of chemicals in the brain - much of our thought + behaviour relies on chemical transmission in the brain (+ hormones in the body) - occurs using neurotransmitters - e.g, high levels of dopamine = related to schizophrenia.
What is ‘heredity’?
The process where characteristics are passed from one generation to the next through genes - genes carry the coding for a particular trait.
What do biological psychologists believe about behavioural characteristics (e.g intelligence + personality)?
They are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics e.g height + eye colour -> + behaviours (including psychological disorders) may be inherited from one/both parents.
What is each individual typically born with + what does this mean?
23 pairs of chromosones inherited from their biological parents = the individuals genotype + forms the basis for development - every individuals genotype (apart from MZ twins) is unique to them.
What do biological psychologists suggest + what do they use?
That genes underpin certain behaviours + they often use twin studies + adoption studies to establish if this is the case.
What are twin studies?
They compare pairs of monozygotic (MZ) = identical + dizygotic (DZ) = non-identical twins -> MZ twins are 100% genetically the same + DZ twins are 50% genetically similar.
What happens in twin studies?
The number of MZ + DZ twins both having a behaviour is calculated (concordance rate) + compared = gives an indication of how much the behaviour is genetic -> if shared behaviour is more likely when individuals are genetically the same = the argument is that the behaviour has a genetic component.
Examples of concordance rates from twin research?
- Gottesman’s study of schizophrenia - MZ concordance rate = 48% - DZ = 17%.
- Craddock & Jone’s study of bipolar - MZ = 40% - DZ = 5-10%.
What are adoption studies?
They examine concordance rates for a behaviour between an adoptive child + their biological parent (adopted children share 0% of their genes w/ their adopted parent).
What do adoption studies show/argue?
If there is a high concordance rate between the biological parent + child = the behaviour must be genetic - it is not possible that the child has learned the behaviour from their bio. parent as they were not brought up by them.
What is a genotype?
An individual’s genetic make-up - occurs at conception + provides the genetic code for how that individual will develop -> dictates characteristics such as eye + hair colour.
What is a phenotype?
The expression of an individual’s genetic influence which can be influenced by the environment -> e.g height is dictated by genotype - can be affected by the environment.
What are genes?
They make up chromosones + consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism + psychological features -> transmitted from parents to offspring.
What do biological psychologists believe about evolution?
Physical characteristics + behaviour evolve in humans because individuals within a species naturally differ from each other - some of this variation is inherited.
What is the theory of natural selection?
Members of the same species must compete with each other for access to resources such as mates + food -> those who survive this competition go on to reproduce and pass on their genes.
What does natural selection provide for?
The basis for the concept that any genetically determined behaviour is the result of an individual drive to survive = certain behavioural characteristics will be passed on + these traits will eventually become more widespread.
How does natural selection occur?
1- There is a random mutation in the genetic make-up of an individual = leads to the trait occuring.
2- If that change means that the survival and/or chance of reproduction is increased = the indiviual is more likely to mate + pass on the gene that codes for this trait.
3- This trait will continue to be passed on to future generations + become a prevalent trait within the human race.
How have mate preferences resulted from evolution?
Males prefer women who display characteristics of fertility = more likely to be able to give birth + females prefer characteristics in men that display status = able to provide for the offspring.
How do neurotransmitters affect behaviour?
When a nerve impulse reaches the end of one neuron a neurotransmitter is released - travels from one neuron to the next across a synapse.
What do some neurotransmitters do?
Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g dopamine) = trigger the recieving neuron to send an impulse + stimulate the brain into action.
Inhibitory (e.g seretonin) = inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm the brain and balance a person’s mood.
What is the psychodynamic approach (PA)?
A perspective that describes the the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconcious, that operate on the mind + direct human behaviour and experience.
What are the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
1- The driving force behind our behaviour is the unconcious mind.
2- Instincts/drives motivate our behaviour + aggressive instincts present from birth.
3- Early childhood experiences determine our personality + adult behaviour.
4- Psychoanalysis should be used to make the unconcious conscious.
What is the iceberg analogy?
The tip of the iceberg (above the surface of the water) is the concious mind, which we are directly aware of - below the surface is the unconcious mind = has greater influence.
What is the conscious mind?
The part of the mind we can access.
What is the unconcious mind?
The part of the mind that is not accessible to the individual -> the drives that motivate our behaviour are stored here + are inaccessible - traumatic/unpleasant memories are believed to remain here + drive our behaviour.
What is the pre-concious?
The things that we could be aware of if we wanted/if we tried.
What is the ‘tripartite’ personality/structure of personality made up of?
The Id, Ego, Superego.
What is the Id?
The primitive part of our personality - operates on the pleasure principle (= the Id gets what it wants) -> it contains our sexual and aggressive urges - it demands instant gratification of its desires.
What is the Ego?
Works on the reality principle + is the mediator between the other two parts of the personality - its role is to reduce the conflict between the demands of the Id + Superego -> manages this by employing defence mechanisms.
What is the Superego?
It is our internalised sense of right and wrong - based on the morality principle, it represents the moral standards of the child’s same-sex parent + punishes the Ego for wrongdoing through guilt.
When do the 3 parts of the personality form?
- Id = birth to about 18 months.
- Ego = 18 months to 3 years.
- Superego = 3 to 6 years (at the phallic stage).
What is anxiety and extreme nervousness a product of + how can it be expressed (to remain healthy)?
Unconcious conflict between the Id and the Superego -> Can be expressed in: dreams, neurotic symptoms e.g phobias, defence mechanisms -> It is expressed SYMBOLICALLY.
What are defence mechanisms?
Everyday unconcious strategies that the Ego uses to manage the conflict between the Id and the Superego = prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats/traumas -> Repression, Denial, Displacement.
What is repression?
A type of forgetting where a painful/disturbing memory is pushed into the unconcious mind where it is not accessible to the concious mind -> the memory still exists but at an unconcious level = the person is unaware of the anxiety that it causes.
How does repression effect behaviour?
There is no recall of the event/situation but the repressed memory still affects behaviour without the person being conciously aware of it.
What is denial?
Refusal to accept the reality of an unpleasant situation.
How does denial effect behaviour?
Someone may believe that a negative situation is positive + it should not cause anxiety.
What is displacement?
When the focus of a strong emotion is expressed onto a neutral person/object - a substitute object for the emotion is used (basis of phobias).
How does displacement effect behaviour?
Someone may exhibit very strong emotion but focus it onto an uninvolved person or object = a symbol linked to the unconcious urge or desire.
What is the aim of psychoanalysis (treatment developed by Freud)?
To make unconcious conflict concious to strengthen the ego + help them to more effectively cope.
What are the main techniques in psychoanalysis?
- Dream interpretation.
- Free association.
- Projective techniques, e.g Rorschach Ink Block Test.
What did Freud claim about child development?
Occurs in 5 stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital -> each stage (not latency) is marked by different conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage.
What do children require during each psychosexual stage + what happens if they get too much/too little of this?
Specific statisfaction/pleasure = GRATIFICATION -> too much/little = they can become FIXATED at a particular stage - determines our adult personality.
What is libido?
Freud was a ‘biologist of the mind’ + believed that the mind needed a source of energy -> libido = sexual mental energy that motivates behaviour, feelings + thoughts.
What is the first psychosexual stage?
Oral -> divided by: passive + aggressive.
Age: 0-12 months.
Focus of libido: mouth - mother’s breast is the object of desire.
What is the effect on adult behaviour of the oral stage?
Oral fixation = smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, criticial.
What is the second psychosexual stage?
Anal -> divided by: expulsive + retentive.
Age: 1 - 3 years.
Focus of libido: anus - child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces.
What is the effect on adult behaviour of the anal stage?
Anal expulsive = thoughtless, messy.
Anal retentive = obsessive, perfectionist.
What is the third psychosexual stage?
Phallic -> divided by: oedipus or electra complex.
Age: 3-5 years.
Focus of libido: genital/genital area - children experience the oedipus or electra complex.
What is the effect on adult behaviour of the phallic stage?
Phallic personality = narcassistic, reckless, possibly homosexual.
What is the fourth psychosexual stage?
Latent -> no divisions.
Age: 6-12 years.
No focus -> earlier conflicts are repressed.
What is the fifth psychosexual stage?
Genital -> no divisions.
Age: 12+ years.
Focus of libido: genitals - sexual desires become concious alongside the onset of puberty.
What is the effect on adult behaviour of the genital stage?
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
Stages of the oedipal complex?
The boy begins to develop sexual desire for his mother -> the boy becomes jealous of his father + fears that his father will castrate him -> the boy is in a state of conflict + deals with this by identifying with his father who becomes his Superego -> the boy substitutes the desire for his mother with a desire for other women.
Stages of the electra complex?
The girl realises she has no penis + blames her mother for this (penis envy) -> the girl begins to develop sexual desire for her father -> the girl becomes jealous of her mother -> the girl realises she cant have a penis or her father = deals w/ this by identifying with her mother who becomes her Superego -> she substitutes her desire for a penis for a baby + substitutes the desire for her father with a desire for other men.
What is ‘Little Hans’?
A case study on a 5-year-old boy (Hans) who had developed a phobia of horses + Max Graf (Hans’ father) documented what his son said + did in detail in letters given to Freud - he then interpreted the behaviour + reported the dreams as a problem in the phallic stage.
What are the key features of Freud’s analysis of Hans?
Hans fascination w/ his ‘widdler’ (penis) + him noticing that animals, including horses, often had much larger penises than him = thought to be indicative of the phallic stage -> Hans’ father went away for a while + Hans enjoyed the attention from his mother + Hans resented his father’s presence when he came back = evidence of the Oedipal complex.
What did Freud suggest about Hans’ phobia?
That it was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was displaced onto horses -> horses were a symbolic representation of Hans’ unconcious fear = the fear of castration experienced during the Oedipal complex.
What aspects of Freud’s theories does ‘Little Hans’ demonstrate?
- The defence mechanism of displacement.
- The explanation of phobias.
- An example of how boys experience the Oedipal complex.
What is humanistic psychology?
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination.
What are the assumptions of the humanistic approach?
- Every person is unique -> psychology should focus on the subjective experiences, feelings + thoughts of a person = an idiographic approach.
- Each person is a rational + concious being -> people have FREEWILL + are self-determining.
- Humans should be viewed as a whole -> from a hollistic perspective rather than reducing behaviour to smaller elements.
- The scientific method is NOT a valid way to study human behaviour -> humans are subjective.
What is free will?
The notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour/thoughts are not determined by internal biological or external forces.
What does the humanistic approach acknowledge about free will?
We have constraints on our free will + that we have a limited number of options to choose from due to social rules, laws + morals.
What does the humanistic approach suggest that humans are?
Active agents who have the ability to determine their own development + that any individual is ultimately in charge of how they develop through life.
What do humanists reject?
Scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of behaviour + instead believe that we should consider the SUBJECTIVE experience of the individual.
What do humanistic psychologists believe that every person has?
An innate tendency to try to self-actualise = when people attempt to achieve their full potential + become the best they possibly can.
What is self-actualisation?
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential -> becoming what you are capable of -> this is unique to each individual + not everyone will manage to achieve self-actualisation.
What do humanistic psychologists believe about personal growth?
It is an essential part of what it is to be human + that this is the path to self-actualisation since personal growth is concerned with developing and changing to become fulfilled, satisfied + goal-orientated.
What happens when self-actualisation is achieved?
It can be described as the ultimate feeling of well-beings + satisfaction -> peak/religious/spiritual experience - thought to be an intensely strong feeling of ‘completeness’.
What are the five characteristics of a fully-functioning person (who is able to reach the state of self-actualisation) according to Roger?
1- Is open to experience: both positive + negative emotions are accepted - negative feelings are not denied, but worked through.
2- Lives existentially: is in touch w/ different experiences as they occur - avoiding prejudging + preconceptions -> appreciating the present.
3- Trusts feelings + trusts themselves to make decisions.
4- Is creative: involves the ability to adjust + change + seek new experiences.
5- Has a fulfilled life: is happy + satisfied w/ life + is open to new challenges.
What type of process is Roger’s law(s) of self-actualisation?
A life-long process.
What did Maslow suggest needs to happen to achieve self-actualisation (a growth need)?
A number of other deficiency needs must be met first -> (bottom) physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness + love needs, self-esteem needs, self-actualization (top).
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
TOP.
Self-actualization = achieving ones full potential, including creative activities.
Self-esteem = prestige + feeling of accomplishment.
Belongingness and love needs = intimate relationships, friends.
Safety need = security.
Physiological needs = food, water, warmth, rest.
BOTTOM.
What did Maslow suggest about each stage of the hierarchy of needs?
Each stage must be successfully achieved before moving onto the next + each individual is always striving to meets these needs in attempt to self-actualise.
What did Maslow characterise life as + what did self-actualisation say self-actualisation is NOT?
A series of peak experiences (moments of great achievement/elation that happen when all deficiency needs are satisfied) -> self-actualisation is NOT permanent.
According to Carl Rogers, when does the concept of the self develop?
During childhood -> as the child grows older they become aware of their own identity, personality, characteristics, etc.
What are the three selves which need to intergrate to achieve self-actualisation (according to Rogers)?
- The self-concept.
- The ideal self.
- The real self.
What is the self-concept?
The person you percieve yourself to be - based largely on life experiences + whether the individual has experienced conditions of worth or unconditional positive regard from their parents = has a major impact on how an indivual feels/thinks/behaves -> low self-esteem = negative self-concept.
What is the ideal self?
The person you wish to be - consists of an individual’s goals + ambitions in life and is dynamic.
What is the real self?
The person you actually are - consists of your actual skills + abilities as well as your limitations. -> if you have not experienced unconditional positive regard as a child = may be necessary to enage in person-centred therapy for you to understand who your real self is.
What did Roger say that a person has to be to achieve self-actualisation?
Congruent = means their ideal self, real self + self-concept are the same/similar (DIFFICULT - many people dont become self-actualised).
What does an individual need to do to achieve congruence?
Close the gap between their ideal self, real self + self-concept -> can only happen if they develop an accurate view of who they are (their self-concept) + have a more achievable and realistic ideal self.
What kind of psychotherapy help with reaching congruence?
Person-centred therapy - in which the person experiences unconditional positive regard from a therapist -> created by Carl Rogers.
What is Roger’s theory of the role of conditions of worth?
Rogers assumed that all individuals need UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD (unconditional love) + suggested that it is essential to the development of a well-adjusted adult -> this UPR should come from the mother OR other family members, friends, partner or therapist.
What did Rogers claim could explain feelings of worthlessness + low self-esteem in adults?
A lack of unconditional positive regard + the conditions of worth put on us by our parents.
What can encourage an individual to have a negative self-concept?
A parent who sets boundaries/limits on their love for their child (CONDITIONAL positive regard) -> because they feel that there are requirements that need to be met to be loved (CONDITIONS OF WORTH).
What can conditions of worth be?
Real or percieved by the individual -> either way it may prevent them from achieving self-actualisation.
What did Rogers refer to those in therapy as + why?
‘Clients’ (rather than ‘patients’) - he saw the individual as the expert on their own condition.
What kind of psychotherapy is ‘person-centered’ therapy?
Non-directive = the client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a therapeutic atmosphere that is warm, supportive + non-judgemental.
What did Rogers believe that an effective therapist should provide + why?
Genuineness, empathy + unconditional positive regard = to restore the lack they experienced in infancy = helps them gain positive self-worth = reduces incongruence = can become a fully functioning person + have the potential to self-actualise.
Why is the client-therapist relationship important?
It is essential that the client feels they are able to say whatever they want without judgement = enables the client to realise potential barriers to becoming congruent + can work through these barriers.
How has humanistic psychology influenced counselling?
Client-centred approach is an increasingly common feature of other therapies, such as CBT (= an indication of the continued relevance of the humanistic approach in the modern world).
