Memory Flashcards
Who created the Multi-store model of memory (MSM)?
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin.
What does the MSM describe + suggest?
How information flows through the memory system -> the model suggests that memory is made up of three stores linked by processing.
What passes through to the sensory sensory register?
All stimuli from the environment.
What does the sensory register consist of?
Several registers - one for each of the five senses.
How is the coding in each sensory register/store?
Modality specific.
What is the store coding for visual info + the store coding for acoustic info?
Visual = iconic memory. Acoustic = echoic memory.
What is the duration, capacity + general coding of the sensory register?
Duration = limited, capacity = very large, coding = unprocessed.
How does information pass from the sensory register to the short term memory?
If you pay attention to the information.
What is the duration, capacity + coding of short-term memory?
Duration = 18-30 seconds, capacity = +7/-2, coding = acoustic.
When does maintenance rehearsal occur?
When we repeat material to ourselves over and over again in order to store the information for a limited period of time.
How can information be kept indefinitely in the short-term memory?
Through maintenance rehearsal.
What is elaborative rehearsal?
Thinking about the meaning of the information in short-term memory.
What happens through elaborative rehearsal?
Information from the short-term memory becomes coded semantically and passes to the long-term memory store.
What is the duration, capacity + coding of the long-term memory?
Duration = lifelong, capacity = unlimited, coding = semantic.
What are the key claims of the MSM?
1- Each memory store is unitary. 2- Each store is separate to the others = suggests that one store can be damaged when the other is not.
What is STM?
The limited capacity store.
What is LTM?
The permanent memory store.
What is coding?
The format in which information is stored.
What is capacity?
The amount of information that can be held in a memory store.
What is duration?
The length of time information can be held in memory.
How did Baddeley’s separate participants when researching coding?
Gave different lists of words to 4 groups of p.ps to remember -> Group 1: (acoustically similar) - words that sounded similar. Group 2: (acoustically dissimilar) - words that sounded different. Group 3: (semantically similar) - would with similar meanings. Group 4: (semantically dissimilar) - word with different meanings.
What were the p.ps shown + asked to do in Baddeley’s research on coding?
Shown the original words + asked to recall them in the correct order.
What were the results of Baddeley’s research?
When the p.ps recalled the word lists immediately (recalling from STM) - they tended to do worse with acoustically similar words -> when they recalled after a time interval of 20 mins (recalling from LTM) - they did worse with the semantically similar words.
What do the results of Baddeley’s research suggest?
That information is coded acoustically in STM + semantically in LTM.
How did Joseph Jacobs research the capacity of STM?
He measured digit span to find out the capacity of STM - the researcher reads out 4 digits + the p.ps recall these out loud in the correct order - if this is correct = the researcher reads out 5 digits + so on until the p.ps cannot recall the order correctly (indicates the individuals digit span).
What did Joseph Jacobs find?
The mean span for digits across all p.ps was 9.3 items - the mean span for letters was 7.3.
How did George Miller (1956) research the capacity of the STM?
Used the digit span technique - consists of participants hearing a list of numbers + immediately trying to recall them in the correct order.
What were the results of Miller’s research into the capacity of STM?
Miller reviewed psychological research + concluded that the span of STM is 7+/-2 -> Miller also found that if people chunk things together, they can remember more.
What are the main parts of the sensory register?
The iconic store + the echoic store.
What are the other sensory stores in the sensory register?
The haptic store = what you feel, the gustatory store = what you taste, the olfactory store = what you smell.
How did Peterson & Peterson (1959) research duration in STM?
P.ps (24 undergraduate students) were presented with a consonant trigram - rehearsal was prevented by asking them to count backwards in threes from a specified number -> after intervals up to over 30 seconds - p.ps were asked to stop counting + repeat the trigram.
What were the results of Peterson & Peterson’s research on duration of STM?
After 3 second delay = 80% recall, after 18 second = 10% recall, after 30 seconds = no trigrams were recalled.
What was Peterson & Peterson’s conclusion?
The duration of STM is 30 seconds or less if maintenance rehearsal is blocked (evidence for MSM) - this information fades from STM because of trace decay.
How did Bahrick et al (1975) research the duration of LTM?
Investigators interviewed graduates from a high school in America - over a 50 year period -> 392 graduates were shown a set of photographs from their high school yearbook + p.ps were split into 2 groups.
What were the 2 groups in Bahrick et al’s research?
- Photo recognition group: p.ps given a list of names + asked to select the name that matched the person in the photo. 2. Recall group: p.ps asked to name the people in the photos without being given a list of possible names.
What were the results for the photo recognition group in Bahrick’s research?
15 years - 90% could accurately match the correct name to the person in the photo.
48 years - 70% could accurately match the correct name to the person in the photo.
What were the results for the recall group in Bahrick’s research?
15 years - 60% could accurately name the people in the photos.
48 years - 30% could accurately name the people in the photos.
What was the conclusion Bahrick et al made?
The duration of LTM can last a long time - it is at least 34 years based on the evidence from this study.
How did Sperling (1960) research the capacity & duration in the sensory register?
P.ps were flashed 3x4 grid of letters onto a screen for 50 milliseconds - he then asked p.ps to recall as many letters as they could remember + he then asked p.ps to recall single rows of letters when particular tones were heard.
What were the results of Sperling’s research into the capacity & duration in the sensory register?
When asked to recall as many letters as they could, p.ps could remember approx. 4 letters - when p.ps were asked to recall single rows of letters, they recalled on average 3 times -> however, the items decayed rapidly.
What was the conclusion that Sperling made?
The capacity of the sensory register is a minimum of 4 items + the duration is between 250 to 500 milliseconds - it is thought that the image of each item fades during the 50ms + the time it takes to report back recalled items so it could be much larger than 4 items.
Who created the theory of the working memory model?
Alan Baddeley + Graham Hitch.
What are the 4 features of working memory?
- STM is not unitary but consists of separate components.
- Each separate part/component processes + stores different types of information.
- Each component contains different types of memory codes.
- Each has limited storage capacity - can’t store much.
What is the working memory model a development of?
The multi-store model - it puts forward a system involving active processing + short-term storage of information.
What does the WMM suggest the four main components of STM are?
- The central executive.
- The phonological loop (made up of the articulatory loop + phonological store).
- The visuo-spatial sketch pad.
- Episodic buffer.
What does the MSM say that memory stores are - in contrast to WMM?
MSM says that memory stores are unitary (MSM is unidirectional) - WMM says that STM is not unitary (WMMA isn’t unidirectional).
What is the central executive?
The organiser of the STM - it attends all incoming information, temporarily stores info + decides what pieces of information to send to the different slave systems.
What is the capacity and coding of the central executive?
It has a limited capacity (can only deal with one type of information at a time) + can process information from any mode/any senses = unprocessed coding.
What is the phonological loop?
Deals with auditory information + preserves the order in which the information arrives. It is active during verbal tasks, e.g learning/repeating words, speaking + reading.
What is the capacity + coding of the phonological loop?
The coding is acoustic + has a limited capacity = can only deal with a small amount of sound based info.
What is the phonological loop divided into?
- The phonological store = which stores the words you can hear for a brief period of time.
- The articulatory loop = which allows maintenance rehearsal/sub-vocal repetition of the items stored in the phonological loop.
What is the Visuo-spatial sketchpad?
The visuo-spatial sketchpad stores/manipulates visual + spatial information. It is involved in pattern recognition + perception of movement. It deals with what items look like + the physical relationship between them.
When is the visuo-spatial sketchpad active?
During visual tasks, e.g forming an image of something + answering questions about it.
What is the coding + capacity of the Visuo-spatial sketchpad?
Limited capacity + semantic coding.
What is the Visuo-spatial sketchpad sub-divided into?
- The visual cache = stores visual data.
- The inner scribe = records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.
When was the episodic buffer added to the WMM + by who?
In 2000 by Baddeley.
What is the episodic buffer?
Acts as a temporary ‘backup’ store (it is the storage component of the Central Executive) - it is responsible for integrating + manipulating material from the Central Executive, PL, VSS + LTM -> processes information that requires two different senses at the same time. It also makes sense of time-sequencing.
What are the other functions of the Central Executive?
Calling up information from LTM, merging information from the slave systems and LTM.
What is the capacity + coding of the episodic buffer?
Limited capacity + unprocessed coding.
What is one of the episodic buffer’s most important functions?
Is to recall material from the LTM and integrate it into the components of STM when working memory requires it.
What can the episodic buffer also do?
Can process information that requires two senses at the same time (dual coding).
What is episodic LTM?
A long term memory store of personal events. It includes memories of when the events occurred and of the people, objects, places + behaviours involved. Memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously + with effort.
Example of Episodic LTM?
A recent visit to the dentist.
What is semantic LTM?
A long term memory store for our knowledge of the world. This includes facts + our knowledge of what words and concepts mean. Memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously + with effort.
Example of semantic LTM?
Your knowledge of what the capital city of Germany is.
What is procedural LTM?
A long term memory store for our knowledge of actions + skills. This includes our memories of learned skills. Memories from this store can usually be recalled without making a conscious effort.
Example of procedural LTM?
How to ride a bike.
What are the features of episodic LTM?
Explicit, associated with the hippocampus + the frontal lobe, memories can be expressed verbally (declarative), may be less resistant to forgetting/amnesia.
What are the features of semantic LTM?
Explicit, temporal lobe, memories can be expressed verbally (declarative), may be less resistant to forgetting/amnesia.
What are the features of procedural LTM?
Implicit, located in the cerebellum + motor cortex, difficult to explain verbally (non-declarative), may be more resistant to forgetting/amnesia.
What was the aim of Tulving’s (1989) research?
To investigate whether episodic + semantic tasks were processed differently.
What was Tulving’s method?
6 p.ps were injected with radioactive gold - would be detected in the body using a gamma ray detector -> p.ps thought about semantic memories such as ideas they have learnt from a book or episodic memories such as their school days - p.ps would start thinking about a topic + 60 seconds later they’d be injected with the gold + were then scanned 8 seconds later.
What were the results of Tulving’s research?
The 2 different types of tasks provided different patterns of blood flow in the brain - episodic memories were associated with increased blood flow in the frontal lobes of the cortex + semantic memories were associated with increased blood flow in the posterior region.
What did Tulving conclude?
Episodic + semantic LTMs seem to involve different parts of the brain + are therefore separate parts of the LTM - suggests a biological basis for differences in the LTM.
What are the two explanations of forgetting?
1- Proactive and retroactive interference.
2- Retrieval failure due to absence of cues.
What is interference?
Forgetting because one memory blocks the recall of another, causing one or both memories to be forgotten -> the degree of forgetting is often greater when the memories are similar.
What is proactive interference?
Forgetting occurs when older memories (already stored) disrupt the recall of newer memories - the degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.
What is an example of proactive interference?
E.g. a teacher has learned so many names in the past that she has difficulty remembering the names of her current class.
What is retroactive interference?
Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored - the degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar.
What is an example of retroactive interference?
E.g. a teacher has learned so many new names that she has difficulty remembering the names of the students last year.
What was the aim of Postman’s (1960) research - (supporting research for retroactive interference)?
To investigate how retroactive interference affects learning.
What was the method in Postman’s (1960) research + what were the groups?
A lab experiment was used - p.ps were split into two groups + both groups had to remember a list of paired words.
Group A (experimental group) = also had to learn another list of words where the 2nd paired word is different.
Group B (control) = not given the second list.
All p.ps were asked to recall the words on the first list.
What were the results + conclusion of Postman’s (1960) research?
The recall of the control group was more accurate than that of the experimental group = suggests that the learning items in the second list interfered with p.ps’ ability to recall the list - this is an example of retroactive interference.
What was the aim of Keppel & Underwood’s (1962) research - (supporting research for proactive interference)?
They examined the effect of proactive interference on long-term memory, in an experiment that resembled Peterson & Peterson (1959).
What was the method in Keppel & Underwood’s (1962) research?
P.ps were presented with meaningless 3-letter consonant triagrams (e.g THG) at different intervals (3,6,9, second, etc.) -> to prevent rehearsal = the p.ps had to count backwards in threes before recalling - p.ps were asked to come back at later stages to take part in a few trials of the task which involved them learning new triagrams.
What were the results of Keppel & Underwood’s (1962) research?
P.ps typically recalled the triagrams that were presented first, irrespective of the interval length - they were also poor at recalling later triagrams as earlier learning of triagrams had interfered with later learning.
What was the conclusion of Keppel & Underwood’s (1962) research?
The results suggest that proactive interference occurred because the memory for the earlier consonants interfered with the memory for the new consonants.
What is retrieval failure?
A form of forgetting - it occurs when we dont have the necessary cues to access memory -> the memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.
What is a cue?
A ‘trigger’ of information that allows us to access a memory - such cues may be meaningful or may be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning.
What is an example of a cue?
E.g. cues may be external (environmental) or internal (mood) -> some cues are linked to the material to be remembered in a meaningful way.
Why might people forget?
Because of insufficient cues - when info is initially placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time -> if these cues arent available at the time of recall, it may make it appear as if the info has been forgotten (actually due to retrieval failure).
If a cue is to help us recall info what must it be?
Present at encoding (when we learnt the material) and at retrieval (when we are recalling it) - if cues available at encoding + retrieval are different/absent = there will be some forgetting.
What are two types of forgetting in retrieval failure?
1- Context-dependent forgetting.
2- State-dependent forgetting.
What is context-dependent forgetting (environmental context)?
Where the relevant cues in the environment (e.g your pen/classroom) that were there when you learnt the info are then missing from the place you then recall the info in = stops you from remembering the info.
What is an example of context-dependent forgetting?
E.g. if you used a certain pen to write the info down with + then you didnt have that same pen in the exam, you might be less likely to remember the info.
What is state-dependent forgetting (internal)?
Where there are psychological or physiological differences between how you felt when you were learning the info + then how you feel when you are recalling the info = may affect the recall.
What is an example of state-dependent forgetting?
E.g. Bower found that if p.ps felt happy when they were learning info + then they also felt happy when they were later recalling the info = they were more likely to not forget anything -> if they were happy learning - then sad when recalling = much more likely to not remember the info.
What was the aim of Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) study - (supporting study for context-dependent forgetting)?
To investigate if recall was affected when p.ps had to recall information in a different context to where they first learnt the information.
What was the method of Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) study?
Divers learned a list of words either on land or underwater - they were then asked to recall the words either on land or under water -> four conditions:
1- Learn on land + recall on land.
2- Learn on land + recall underwater.
3- Learn underwater + recall on land.
4- Learn underwater + recall underwater.
What were the results of Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) study?
In two of these conditions the environmental context of learning and recall matched, whereas the other two did not -> accurate recall of the words was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions.
What was the conclusion of Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) study?
When the external cues available at learning are different from the ones at recall, this leads to retrieval failure.
What was the aim of Darley et al’s (1973) study - (supporting study for state-dependent forgetting)?
Wanted to investigate state-dependent forgetting.
What was the method of Darley et al’s (1973) study?
Their p.ps smoked cannabis and then were asked to hide some money whilst high - they were then asked to find the money again; some of whom were still high + others whom were no longer high.
What were the results of Darley et al’s (1973) study?
People who were still under the influence of cannabis when asked to find the money were more successful in doing so compared to people who were sober + asked to do the same.
What was the conclusion of Darley et al’s (1973) study?
This indicates that the psychological/physical state you are in at the time of coding the info needs to be similar to the state you are in when recalling the info to be successful in your recall.
What are the factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?
1- Misleading information = Leading questions + post event discussion.
2- Anxiety = weapon anxiety.
What is eyewitness testimony (EWT)?
The ability of people to remember the details of events, such as accidents + crimes - which they themselves has observed -> accuracy of EWT can be affected by different factors.
Why is it so important to research the accuracy of EWT?
EWT is incredibly important because people can be wrongfully convicted of crimes based upon it + may go to prison as a result -> in 75% of cases where people have been found to have been wrongfully convicted of a crime + had their innocence proven via DNA testing their original incorrect guilty conviction was based upon incorrect EWT evidence.
What is misleading information?
Incorrect info given to the eyewitness usually after the event (often called ‘post-event’ information) - it can take many forms such as leading questions + post-event discussion between co-witnesses and/or other people.
What is a leading question?
A question which, because of the way it is phased, suggests a certain answer.
What is an example of a leading question?
Question A: “How old was the youth in the photograph?”
VERSUS
Question B: “How old was the man in the photograph?”
-> Question A is an example of a leading question because the word “youth” suggests the man was young.
What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research - (supporting research for leading questions)?
To investigate whether misleading information distorts the accuracy of an eye witnesses’ immediate recall.
What was the method of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research?
45 p.ps (students) were shown 7 films of different traffic accidents in a lab situation - all p.ps saw the same films + after each film, p.ps were given a questionnaire which asked them to describe the accident + then answer a series of specific questions - including the critical Q: ‘How fast were the cars going when they ___ each other?’
What were the 5 conditions in Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research?
P.ps split into 5 condtions, taking part in only 1 each - each condition had a different verb in the critical Q:
1- How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
2- How fast were the cars going when they collided into each other?
3- How fast were the cars going when they bumped into each other?
4- How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
5- How fast were the cars going when they contacted each other?
What were the results of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research?
- Smashed = 40.8 mean estimated speed.
- Collided = 39.9 mean estimated speed.
- Bumped = 38.1 mean estimated speed.
- Hit = 34.0 mean estimated speed.
- Contacted = 31.8 mean estimated speed.
What was the conclusion of Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) research?
The form of questioning can have an effect on witnesses’ memory - misleading info can cause material to be altered = making memory less accurate.
What memory strategy can be used to remember the verbs in Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) study?
Silly = smashed.
Colin = collided.
Bumped = bumped.
His = hit.
Car = contacted.
What is post-event discussion (PED)?
PED occurs when there is more than one witness to an event - witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co-witnesses or with other people = this may influence the accuracy of each witness’ recall of the event.
What was the aim of Gabbert et al’s (2003) study - (supporting study for post-event discussion)?
To investigate the effect of post-event discussion as a factor affecting the accuracy of EWT.
What was the method of Gabbert et al’s (2003) study?
P.ps watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view - they were then asked to either: discuss the video they had just seen or have no discussion (control group).
What were the results of Gabbert et al’s (2003) study?
They found that 71% of the p.ps who had had a discussion reported aspects of the event that they did not see in the video but picked up from the discussion whereas in the control group this figure was 0%.
What was the conclusion of Gabbert et al’s (2003) study?
Concluded that witnesses often go along with each other, either to win social approval or because they believe the other witnesses are right and they are wrong -> they called this memory conformity.
What is anxiety?
A state of emotional and physical arousal -> the emotions include having worried thoughts + feelings of tension - physical changes include an increased heart rate + sweatiness.
What can anxiety do?
(Its a normal reaction to stressful situations) - but can affect the accuracy + detail of EWT.
What do lab experiments show about anxiety + what does this align with?
That high levels of anxiety reduce accuracy of EWT - fits with the general law in psychology that very high levels of arousal (such as anxiety) reduce performance on all kinds of tasks = the Yerkes Dodson Law.
What is the Yerkes Dodson Law?
It suggests that moderate anxiety is associated with better recall than very high or very low anxiety.
What is weapon focus (as a source of anxiety)?
When a witness’ attention is typically focused on any weapon used in an incident as a result of understandable fear for their own safety = means that there is a corresponding lack of attention (focus) paid to the appearance of the perpetrator + the person does not process the information.
What does weapon focus do?
Reduced the ability of the witness to provide accurate information.
What was the aim of Johnson & Scott’s (1976) study into anxiety?
To investigate if the presence of a weapon (which leads to anxiety) affects the accuracy of EWT.
What was the method of Johnson & Scott’s (1976) study into anxiety?
P.ps were asked to sit in a waiting room where they heard an argument in an adjoining room + then saw a man running through the room carrying either a pen covered in grease (low anxiety condition) or a knife covered in blood (high anxiety ‘weapon focus’ condition) -> p.ps were later asked to identify the man from a set of photographs.
What were the results of Johnson & Scott’s (1976) study into anxiety?
Mean accuracy was 49% in identifying the man in the pen condition - compared with 33% accuracy in the knife condition -> the researcher monitored eyewitnesses’ eye movements + found that the presence of a weapon caused attention towards the weapon - taking it away from other things such as the persons face.
What was the conclusion of Johnson & Scott’s (1976) study into anxiety?
Weapon focus leads to less accurate recall of the person committing the crime because of the anxiety that the witness experiences.
What was the aim of Yuille & Cutshall’s (1986) CONTRADICTORY study into leading questions + anxiety?
To investigate the effect of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT in a real life shooting, in which one person was killed + another person seriously wounded.
What was the method of Yuille & Cutshall’s (1986) CONTRADICTORY study into leading questions + anxiety?
21 witnesses were originally interviewed by investigating police + 13 witnesses - aged between 15 + 32 - agreed to take part in Y & C’s follow-up research -> in both sets of interviews, verbatim accounts of the incident were obtained + follow-up questions were asked in order to clarify points of detail - the researchers in the follow-up study also asked 2 misleading Qs.
What were the results of Yuille & Cutshall’s (1986) CONTRADICTORY study into leading questions + anxiety?
Y & C found that 13 witnesses who took part in the follow-up interview were accurate in their eye witness accounts 5 months later + little change found in their testimonies.
What did Yuille & Cutshall find about the misleading questions in the study?
The wording of the misleading questions had no effect; those who were most deeply distressed by the incident (e.g. suffered nightmares) were the most accurate witnesses - 88% compared to 75% for the less-stressed group.
What was the conclusion of Yuille & Cutshall’s (1986) CONTRADICTORY study into leading questions + anxiety?
In real life situations, recall is not necessarily inaccurate, or susceptible to misleading questions - the level of stress experienced is not related to accuracy of recall.
What is a schema?
A mental framework of beliefs + expectations that influence cognitive processing - they are developed from experience.
What is a cognitive interview?
A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories - cognitive interviews work because they reduce inaccuracies caused by leading questions + anxiety - but also because they increase retrieval cues.
What are the 4 techniques in a cognitive interview?
1- Context reinstatement.
2- Report everything.
3- Recall in reverse order.
4- Recall from changed perspective.
What does context reinstatement involve?
These questions require witnesses to mentally recreate an image of a situation - this includes details of the environment (such as the weather conditions) as well as their emotional state (their feelings) at the time of the incident.
How does context reinstatement work?
Recalling how you felt at the time of the crime as well as what the environment was like provides more possible retrieval cues for the memory of the crime itself - on some occasions the witness actually returns to the scene of the crime - this works as people often cannot access memories + they need appropriate contextual and emotional cues to retrieve memories.
What does report everything involve?
These questions require the witnesses to report all details about the event, even though these details may seem unimportant (e.g what they were wearing).
How does report everything work?
Witnesses might not realise that some details are important + details might help them recall significant information because small details again may act as retrieval cues - memories are also interconnected with one another so that recollection of small details may eventually be pieced together from different witnesses to form a clearer picture of the event.
What does recall in reverse order involve?
These questions require the witness to recall the scene in a different chronological order e.g. from the end to the beginning.
How does recall in a reverse order work?
This is done to prevent people from reporting their expectations of how the event must have happened rather than the actual events - it also prevents dishonesty.
What does recall from a changed perspective involve?
These questions require the witness to mentally recreate the situation from different points of view e.g. describing what another witness present at the scene would’ve seen.
How does recall from a changed perspective work?
This is done to disrupt the effect of expectations + schema on recall - the schema you have for a particular setting generate expectations of what would have happened + it is the schema that is recalled rather than what actually happened.
What 2 things must the interviewer also do in a cognitive interview + why?
1- Avoid direct questions = this reduces the chances of the witness being asked potentially leading questions that reduce the accuracy of EWT.
2- Avoid interruptions = these may increase the anxiety of a witness that also reduces the accuracy of EWT.
What are the differences between cognitive interviews and standard interviews?
Standard Interview =
- Free recall of event.
- Specific questions asked.
- Not as effective in helping the witness recall accurate info.
- No specific specialist training needed to conduct this interview.
Cognitive Interview =
- Recall in the context the event occurred.
- Wider questions asked.
- More accurate in helping the victim recall accurate info.
- Specialist training needed to conduct this interview.
Economic implications of psychological research into memory?
