Research methods (topic 11)

Question 1

what is an independent variable

Answer 1

a variable in an experiment that is manipulated and is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable

Question 2

what is a dependent variable

Answer 2

a variable in an experiment that is being measured and is dependent on the independent vaiable

Question 3

ecological validity

Answer 3

the degree to which an investigation represents real life experiences

Question 4

what is an extraneous variable

Answer 4

–factors in a study that could interfere with the IV and DV and that could affect the results of the study (e.g., noise)
–may affect the validity
–of these factors are not controlled they become cofounding variables

Question 5

extraneous variables

situational factors

Answer 5

–aspects of the environment that can affect the ppt’s bahviour
–how the study is conducted could also introduce situational variables, e.g., ppt may improve if they repeat the study. this is called the order effect

Question 6

extraneous variables

participant variables

Answer 6

–refers to the ways in which each ppt varies from the other and how this could effect the results e.g., mood, intelligence, etc.

Question 7

extraneous variables

investigator effect

Answer 7

–when the experimenter unconsciously conveys to ppt how they should behave - experimenter bias.

Question 8

extraneous variables

demand characteristics

Answer 8

–the clues in an experiment which convey to the ppt the purpose of research which may lead to the ppt altering their behaviour.

Question 9

how to control situational variables

Answer 9

–standardised procedure:
enduring that the situation and procedure are exactly the same for each ppt.
–counterbalancing:
giving half of the ppt condition ‘A’ and the condition ‘B’ and giving the other half of the ppts condition ‘B’ and then condition ‘A’
–randomisation:
assigning the ppts randomly to avoid bias

Question 10

how to control ppt variables

Answer 10

–random allocation:
randomly allocating ppt to the condition of the study to prevent only a certain type of person being in one condition

Question 11

demand characteristics

Answer 11

the clues in an experiment that lead the ppt to think they know the aims of the study

Question 12

how to control demand characteristics

Answer 12

–single-blind technique:
when the information of the study is withheld from the ppt
–double-blind technique:
when both of the ppt and researcher are unaware of the aims of the study

Question 13

what is a null hypothesis

Answer 13

–hypothesis that states that there is no or very little effect
–states that there is no relationship between the variables
–any difference is due to chance

Question 14

what is an alternative hypothesis

Answer 14

–states that there is a relationship between two variables
–not due to chance

Question 15

what is non-directional hypothesis

Answer 15

–it is used when a theory cannot make a clear prediction and the evidence is mixed
–there will be a difference in how many numbers are recalled correctly by adults and children

Question 16

what is a directional hypothesis

Answer 16

–it issued when a theory makes a clear claim, so the direction of the hypothesis can be predicted
–e.g., adults will correctly recall more words than children

Question 17

random sampling

Answer 17

–when everyone in the entire target population has an equal chance of being selected
–requires a way of naming or numbering the target population then using a raffle method in choosing

Question 18

random sampling

strengths

Answer 18

–provides the best chance of an unbiased representative sample
–helps control ppt variables (demand characteristics)

Question 19

random sampling

weakness

Answer 19

–time-consuming
–some people may refuse to take part in the study

Question 20

volunteer smapling

Answer 20

–putting together a sample of ppt who have volunteered to take part in a research
–ads can be used

Question 21

volunteer sampling
strength

Answer 21

–easy to arrange
–most ethical option, as they will apply if they want to

Question 22

volunteer sampling
weakness

Answer 22

–not representative of the target population (compared to stratified and random sampling)
–not everyone in the target population will apply
–biased sample- volunteers can be considered as having a particular personality type

Question 23

stratified sampling

Answer 23

–the researcher identifies the different types of people that make up the target population and works out the proportions of each type of people in it

–once different types of people are identified, a random sample will be selected from each group so that they are represented proportionately

Question 24

stratified sampling
strength

Answer 24

–deliberate effort to ensure that the sample is completely representative

Question 25

stratified sampling weaknesses

Answer 25

--time consuming (subgroups need to be identified and calculations made) --people can refuse to take part

Question 26

opportunity sampling

Answer 26

--based on convenience --an opportunity sample is obtained by asking the members if they would take part in the study.

Question 27

opportunity sampling strengths

Answer 27

--quick and convenient method --economical

Question 28

opportunity sampling weaknesses

Answer 28

--can lead to biased sample --not representative sample as the researcher is likely to choose people who are 'helpful' --findings are likely not generalisable

Question 29

independent measures design

Answer 29

--different ppts are used in each condition of the IV --each condition of the experiment includes a different group of ppts --ppt cannot be in both conditions --can be done by random allocation to ensure that each ppt has an equal chance of being assigned to one groups or the other

Question 30

independent measures design strengths

Answer 30

--ppt won't guess the aims of the study. prevents demand characteristics --there are no order effects as ppts only take part in 1 condition. this means participant variables. (mood)

Question 31

independent measures design weaknesses

Answer 31

--not economical as more time, money and ppts are needed to repeat the other conditions --individual differences affect the results of the study. participant variables

Question 32

repeated measures design

Answer 32

--the same ppts take part in each condition of the independent variable --this means that each condition of the experiment includes the same group of ppts

Question 33

repeated measures design strengths

Answer 33

-- no individual differences between the conditions of the study since all the ppts are the same --economical as fewer ppts are needed making it easier and cheaper

Question 34

repeated measures design weaknesses

Answer 34

--ppt will work out the aim and alter their behaviour - demand characteristics --strong chance of order effects

Question 35

matched pairs design

Answer 35

--each condition uses different but similar ppts --effort made to match the ppts in each condition in terms of any important characteristic which may affect the results of the study --one member of the matched pair must be randomly assigned to the experimental group ad the other to the control group

Question 36

matched pairs design strengths

Answer 36

--small chance of working out the aim of the study - no demand characteristics --fair comparisons can be made between the groups as they can be equally matched -less ppt variable

Question 37

matched pairs design weakness

Answer 37

--time-consuming - not economical as it takes more time and money

Question 38

what are the ethical guidelines

Answer 38

1. informed consent 2. confidentiality 3. deception (researchers should not mislead the ppts. If deception cannot be avoided a debrief must be given) 4. right to withdraw 5. protection of ppts

Question 39

naturalistic observation

Answer 39

--studying spontaneous behaviour in an everyday environment --a researcher watched what people do and record what they see --suitable for studying everyday unaltered behaviour

Question 40

controlled/structured observation

Answer 40

--done when it's not practical for a researcher to wait for a behaviour to occur naturally --normally takes place in. a lab

Question 41

participant observation

Answer 41

-when the researcher joins in the group they are researching to get a deeper insight

Question 42

non-participant observation

Answer 42

when researcher doesn't join in and simply watches the group

Question 43

covert observations

Answer 43

when the ppts don't know that they are being watched (cover)

Question 44

overt observations

Answer 44

when ppts know that they are being watched (ppts may alter their behaviour. this will affect the results)

Question 45

strengths of observations

Answer 45

--cheap and easy to conduct --controlled o0bservations can be replicated so they can test for reliability --naturalistic observations can have greater ecological validity (real life)

Question 46

weaknesses of observations

Answer 46

--can be unreliable -observers may not detect behaviour -observers' interpretations may differ --may lack validity -observer Bias: different observers will have different interpretations according to their personal experiences --unethical - no informed consent

Question 47

strengths of case studies

Answer 47

--useful way of studying a particular behaviour that cannot be obtained by other means --provides insight for further research --rich qualitative information obtained

Question 48

weaknesses of case studies

Answer 48

--cannot be replicated --cannot generalise the results as it is unique --researchers' own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias)

Question 49

what is correlation

Answer 49

--technique that measures the relationship between two variables --it is done without manipulating the variables

Question 50

positive correlation

Answer 50

--relationship where there is a positive relationship between the variables (proportional)

Question 51

negative correlation

Answer 51

--relationship where there is a negative relationship between variables (inverse)

Question 52

zero correlation

Answer 52

--no relationship between the variables

Question 53

strengths of using correlations

Answer 53

--more economical than experiments - less money and time needed -- can be used when its unethical to conduct an experiment --allows the researcher to see if there is a relationship between variables

Question 54

weakness of using correlations

Answer 54

--cannot establish cause and effect

Question 55

lab experiment

Answer 55

--conducted under highly controlled conditions where accurate measurements are possible --standardised procedure is used --extraneous variables are controlled

Question 56

lab experiments strengths

Answer 56

--easy to replicate 0 reliable --allows precise control of extraneous variables --most scientific --cause and effect acan be established - high internal validity

Question 57

lab experiments weaknesses

Answer 57

--artificial setting - unnatural behaviour - low ecological validity --demand characteristics

Question 58

field experiments

Answer 58

--conducted in an everyday environment --IV is still manipulated

Question 59

field experiments strengths

Answer 59

--more likely to reflect real life behaviour - higher ecological validity --cause and effect between IV and DV --if covert, demand characteristics are less likely

Question 60

field experiments weaknesses

Answer 60

--less control over extraneous variables --difficult to replicate - not reliable --if covert unethical - informed consent

Question 61

natural experiment

Answer 61

--conducted in everyday environment --IV is not manipulated

Question 62

natural experiment strengths

Answer 62

--real life - high ecological validity --demand characteristics are less likely as ppts probably don't know they are taking part --can be used in unethical situations

Question 63

natural experiment weaknesses

Answer 63

--unethical - no informed consent --not economical - time consuming and expensive --no control over extraneous variables --issues with ppt variables as random allocation not possible

Question 64

structured intreview

Answer 64

--questions are asked in a standardised order and the interviewer will not stray from the interview schedule (not flexible) --based on structured, closed-ended questions

Question 65

structured interview strengths

Answer 65

--easy to replicate - reliable --economical - less time consuming - more time for large sample - more representative - generalisable -quantitative - scientific - easy to analyse

Question 66

structured interview weaknesses

Answer 66

--not flexible --quantitative - lacks detail

Question 67

semi-structured interview

Answer 67

--combination of pre-prepared questions and open-ended questions -has a bit of flexibility

Question 68

semi-structured interview strengths

Answer 68

--allow the interviewer to investigate the interviewee if relevant --both qualitative and quantitative data is collected

Question 69

semi-structured interview weaknesses

Answer 69

--not economical as it is time-consuming

Question 70

unstructured-interview

Answer 70

--contains open-ended questions that can be asked in any order. some questions might be added/ missed as the interview progresses

Question 71

unstructured-interview strengths

Answer 71

--more flexible --qualitative data is gathered - helps to understand a real sense of the person's understanding of the situation --increased validity

Question 72

unstructured-interview weakness

Answer 72

--not economical - time-consuming to analyse the open-ended questions + employing and trainig intreviewers are expensive

Question 73

weakness of using interviews as a research method

Answer 73

--social desirability bias - ppt may answer in a way that is sociably acceptable --interviewer bias: ppt may answer the way they think the interviewer wants them to

Question 74

strength of using questionnaires as a research method

Answer 74

--good for gathering information from a large sample --economical --ethical --researcher not present - reduced social desirability effect --closed-ended questions produce quantitative data - easy to analyse

Question 75

weaknesses of using questionnaires as a research method

Answer 75

--low response rate --ppts may not be honest when completing, they may want to make themselves look better or worse - low validity --open-ended questions are hard to analyse