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Psychology Paper 1 > Research methods: section 2 ‘scientific processes’ > Flashcards

Research methods: section 2 ‘scientific processes’ Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an aim and what does it do?

A
  • a general statement about what the researcher intends to study
  • the aim states the purpose of the study
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2
Q

What is a hypotheses and what does it do?

A
  • a precise and testable statement that steers the relationship between variables
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3
Q

What is a key part of making a hypotheses precise and testable

A
  • operationalisation: if the findings support the hypothesis then it can be accepted, but if not it must be rejected
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4
Q

What is a non-directional hypotheses?

A
  • states that there will be an effect but does not state which way the effect will go (eg not saying which results will score higher in an experiment)
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5
Q

What is a directional hypotheses?

A
  • not only states that there will be an effect but also states which way it will go (eg stating which results will score higher in an experiment)
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6
Q

Why do psychologists use directional hypotheses?

A
  • when past research suggests that the findings will go in a particular direction
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7
Q

What is operationalisation?

A
  • the process of clearly defining the variables to make them testable and measure able
  • this is how variables are ‘put into operation’
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8
Q

What is a pilot study and when do they take place?

A
  • a small scale trial run of a research study using a small number of participants who can be questioned afterwards about their experience
  • they take place before the full scale research
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9
Q

What are the aims of a pilot study and why?

A
  • to check the research works as it is intended to, does not have any extraneous variables and is practical
  • any problems can then be rectified before running the full scale study (eg instructions and questions can be clarified)
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10
Q

What is the purpose of asking participants if they understood the instructions after a pilot study?

A
  • to rectify any problems before the full study begins
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11
Q

What is the purpose of checking the materials and timings are appropriate after a pilot study?

A
  • to ensure the words/pictures are clear and the right amount of words/images were used to rectify any problems before the full study begins
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12
Q

What is the purpose of asking participants about their experience of taking part after a pilot study?

A
  • to help identify demand characteristics which will provide an opportunity to reduce any issues before the full study begins
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13
Q

What is the purpose of ensuring variables have been operationalised sufficiently after a pilot study?

A
  • to help ensure all variables have been identified and fully operationalised before the full scale study begins
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14
Q

What is an IV?

A
  • an independent variable which is manipulated / changed by the researcher
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15
Q

What is a DV?

A
  • a dependant variable which is measured by the researcher
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16
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A
  • any variable other than the independent variable that might affect the dependent variable if it is not controlled
  • researchers should try to identify all possible EV’s and attempt to control them
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17
Q

What are participant variables and examples? [4]

A
  • any characteristics or traits of the participants (other than the IV) that might unfairly influence the results
  • eg personality, mood, age, gender
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18
Q

What are investigator effects and examples? [3]

A
  • any cues from an investigator (other than the IV) that encourage certain behaviours in the participant which may allow the researchers expectations to unfairly influence the results
  • eg wording in instructions, tone of voice, age/personality of researcher
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19
Q

What are environmental variables and examples? [5]

A
  • any aspect of the research environment or situation (other than the IV) that might unfairly influence the results
  • eg weather, room/surroundings, noise, lighting, temperature
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20
Q

What are demand characteristics and examples? [3]

A
  • cues that reveal the aims of the study to the participants, if the participants become aware that they are being studied, these cues may help them work out what the researcher expects to find and cause them to change their behaviour by wanting to please the researcher
  • knowing the aim, opinion on the researcher, practice or order effects
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21
Q

What are 2 key ways of controlling variables in research to ensure accurate (valid) results?

A
  • standardisation and randomisation
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22
Q

What is standardisation and examples? [2]

A
  • putting in place ‘controls’ to ensure every aspect of the research is the same for all participants and meets a consistent ‘standard’
  • eg standardised procedures and standardised instructions
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23
Q

What is randomisation and examples? [2]

A
  • ensuring all research ‘choices’ are randomly selected by chance rather than being determined by the researcher to avoid bias
  • eg using a random name/number generator or ensuring random allocation of participants
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24
Q

What are confounding variables?

A
  • any extraneous variable that is not controlled and may therefore have ‘spoiled’ (confounded) the results as it is no longer clear if any change in the DV was caused by the IV or the confounding variable
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25
Q

What does it mean if a study has confounding variables?

A
  • the results are invalid
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26
Q

What is the meaning of validity?

A
  • validity = accuracy
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27
Q

What are the 2 main types of validity?

A
  • internal and external
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28
Q

What is internal validity?

A
  • whether or not the research measured what it it intended to measure / how successful the study has been in controlling extraneous and confounding variables
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29
Q

What is high internal validity and what does it represent?

A
  • when the EV’s and CV’s were successfully controlled and the IV caused the change in the DV
  • this represents that the study measured what it intended to measure
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30
Q

What is low internal validity and what does it represent?

A
  • when the EV’s and CV’s we’re not successfully controlled and may therefore have affected the findings
  • this means that the study did not measure what it intended to measure
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31
Q

What is external validity?

A
  • whether or not the research findings can be ‘generalised’ to the outside world, it is to do with whether the research is ‘representative’ of the people and places in the real world
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32
Q

What is external validity concerned with generalising findings to? [3]

A
  • real life settings (ecological validity)
  • other people in the target population (population validity)
  • modern times or the modern world (temporal validity)
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33
Q

what is external validity concerned with generalising the findings to?

A
  • real life settings (ecological validity)
  • other people in the target population (ecological validity)
  • modern times or the modern world (temporal validity)
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34
Q

When is the highest level of external validity found?

A
  • when findings can be generalised to all populations, all settings and all times
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35
Q

What is the meaning of reliability?

A
  • reliability = consistency
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36
Q

How do you indentify if the results of a study are reliable?

A
  • if the study is replicated and produces similar results, the study is reliable
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37
Q

How can you test the reliability of a study?

A
  • ‘test retest method’
  • running the study once then doing the exact same study again using the exact same participants and the same conditions
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38
Q

What does the term ‘population’ refer to?

A
  • the large group of individuals who share specific characteristics that the researcher is interested in studying
  • it is sometimes referred to as the ‘target population’
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39
Q

What do we use samples for?

A
  • populations are usually too large to study all of it so we select a sample from it that is representative of everyone in it
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40
Q

How many types of sampling are there?

A
  • 5
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41
Q

What is the difference between population and sample?

A
  • population is the group that we wish to generalise our findings too WHEREAS samples are the group of people who actually take part in the study
42
Q

What is sampling?

A
  • the sample drawn from the population will be representative of the target population so that generalisation of findings becomes possible (giving research high external validity)
43
Q

Why is sampling difficult to achieve?

A
  • it may involve some degree of bias
44
Q

What is bias in terms of sampling?

A
  • this refers to under-representing or over-representing certain groups within the sample
  • for example, too many rounder people or too few males
45
Q

What is generalisation in terms of population?

A
  • the extent to which findings from a specific sample can be applied to the population
  • this is made possible if the sample is representative of the population
46
Q

What are the 5 types of sampling techniques?

A
  • opportunity sampling
  • volunteer sampling
  • systematic sampling
  • random sampling
  • stratified sampling
47
Q

What is opportunity sampling and an example?

A
  • selecting anyone who is willing and available to take part at the time
  • for example approaching people in the street
  • this is the most common sampling technique used in research
48
Q

What is an advantage of opportunity sampling?

A
  • quick, convenient and economical
  • this means that it does not require the level of planning and preparation that many other sampling methods require
  • for example a study into stress levels during shopping can simply involve a researcher approaching shoppers at a shopping centre rather than having to pre-identify participants
  • this is positive as it leads to less delays in the research process and less money spent
49
Q

What is a disadvantage of opportunity sampling?

A
  • can be biased and unrepresentative
  • the participants that happen to be available at the time of the study may not represent everyone in the target population
  • for example if a study is conducted in the middle of the working day, the sample may only include people who work reduced hours or the unemployed and not the full time workers
  • also, researchers may avoid people they do not like the look of (researcher bias)
  • this is problematic because it means the sample may be biased and cannot be generalised to everyone, lowering the population validity
50
Q

What is volunteer sampling and how does it attract volunteers?

A
  • selecting individuals who have put themselves forward to take part in research
  • as participants put themselves forward it is sometimes also referred to as ‘self-selected’ sample
  • researchers may place adverts in newspapers or posters on a university notice board to attract people to this type of research
51
Q

What is an advantage of volunteer sampling?

A
  • quick, convenient and economical
  • it does not require the level of planning and preparation that many other sampling methods require to identify participants
  • for example a researcher studying memory can advertise for participants and the participants should present themselves
  • this is positive as there are less delays in the research and less money is spent
52
Q

What is a disadvantage of volunteer sampling?

A
  • can be biased and unrepresentative
  • the volunteers tend to be a certain type of person, for example they tend to be more confident and motivated than most
  • this is problematic as it means the sample may be biased (known as ‘volunteer bias’) and the findings cannot be generalised to everyone, lowering population validity
53
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A
  • selecting every n’th member of the target population
  • this involves obtaining a list of names of everyone in the target population (eg the school register or database of members) organised in some way (such as alphabetical order) and choosing, for example, every 5th name
54
Q

What is an advantage of systematic sampling?

A
  • avoids researcher bias
  • the researcher has no influence over who is chosen as it’s simply who happens to be in certain positions in a list that are selected - this is positive as the research is less biased, more objective and less open to abuse or researcher influence
55
Q

What is a disadvantage of systematic sampling?

A
  • not guaranteed to be representative
  • every n’th name on the list could by chance lead to only a certain type of person being selected (eg every n’th name could be make even though are are just as many females on the list
  • there is still an element of bias involved as not everyone has an equal chance of being selected as people with names at the start of the register are unlikely to be selected
  • this is a problem as the findings cannot be generalised to everyone which lowers the population validity
56
Q

What is random sampling?

A
  • where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected
  • you must obtain a list of everyone in the target population (eg the school register or database of members), all the names are assigned a number, the sample is generated through some lottery method (eg equal sized pieces of paper in a bag or bowl drawn at random or a computer based randomiser
57
Q

What is an advantage of random sampling?

A
  • avoids researcher bias
  • the research has no influence over who is being selected (eg picking names from a hate prevents them from only choosing people they think will help support their hypothesis)
  • this is positive because random sampling are less bias, more objective and less open to abuse or researcher influence
58
Q

What is a disadvantage of random sampling?

A
  • not guaranteed to be respresentstive
  • drawing names randomly from a hat could still by chance lead to only a certain type of person people selected (eg every name drawn could be male even though there are just as many females in the hat)
  • this is a problem as the findings cannot be generalised to everyone, lowering the population validity
59
Q

What is a stratified sampling?

A
  • selecting a sample that reflects the proportions of people in different subgroups according to their frequency within the population (eg if 15% of the target population are from a particular age group, eg 18-25 years, then 15% of the sample should be from that age group)
  • the researcher needs to identify the different subgroups that make up the population, the researcher works out the proportions needed to make the sample representative (eg 40% of the population are male), ppts from each subgroup are chosen randomly (eg putting the names of all the males in one hat and all the names of the females in another hat and selecting the right proportion of names from each hat)
60
Q

What is an advantage of stratified sampling?

A
  • highly representative
  • it not only avoids researcher bias but also ensures all subgroups are proportionally represented in the same sample (eg picking names from hats prevents the researcher from only choosing people they think will help support their hypothesis but also the focuses on subgroups means the process isn’t left entirely to chance to represent all types of people
  • this is positive because it is likely to be more representative than other sampling techniques
61
Q

What is an advantage of stratified sampling?

A
  • highly representative
  • it not only avoids researcher bias but also ensures all subgroups are proportionally represented in the sample (eg picking names from hats prevents the researcher from only choosing people they think will help support their hypothesis but also the focus on subgroups means the process isn’t left entirely to chance to represent all types of people)
  • this is positive because it is likely to be more representative than other sampling techniques
62
Q

What is a disadvantage of stratified sampling?

A
  • time consuming and inconvenient
  • it takes a great deal of planning to identify relevant subgroups and count frequencies within each subgroup prior to starting the random selection process
  • (eg nine of this level of planning is necessary with opportunity or volunteer samples)
  • this is a problem because there are more delays in the research process and more money spent
63
Q

What is an experimental design?

A
  • refers to the way in which ppts are allocated to the different conditions (eg the experimental condition and control condition)
64
Q

What are the 3 different types of experimental designs?

A
  • repeated measures
  • independent groups
  • matched pairs
65
Q

What is a repeated measures design?

A
  • all ppts take part in all conditions (same group who completes one condition also completes the next condition)
66
Q

What are the advantages of repeated measures design? [2]

A
  • no participant variables: there will not be individual differences between the ppts in each condition because they are the same ppts completing both conditions. this is positive as it increases the internal validity
  • requires half the number of ppts as other designs: less ppts are needed compared to independent groups or matched paired designs to achieve the same amount of data. this is positive as it means studies using this design do not have to recruit as many ppts which is cheaper and less time consuming
67
Q

What are the disadvantages of repeated measures design? [2]

A
  • suffers from order effects: the order the ppts complete the conditions in my affect their performance (eg ppts may do better in the second condition as they have already had practice on the task). this is a problem as it would lower the internal validity
  • high demand characteristics: ppts have more chance of guessing the aim of the study which might affect their behaviour. this is a problem as it reduces the study’s internal validity
68
Q

What is an independent groups design?

A
  • where each group completes one confusion of the experiment only and compare the performance (DV) of each group
  • for example having completely different ppts in each condition who do different tasks
69
Q

What are the advantages of independent groups design? [2]

A
  • doesn’t suffer from order effects: the order that the ppts complete the different conditions does not affect performance because they only complete one condition so will not perform better due to practise or worse due to boredom. this is positive as it increases the interval validity
  • low demand characteristics: ppts have less chance of guessing the aim of the study as they only take part in one condition so do not get any practice on the task. this is positive as it increases the study’s internal validity
70
Q

What are the disadvantages of independent groups design? [2]

A
  • low degree of control over participant variables: there may be individual differences between the ppts in each condition that have not been controlled and could unfairly influence the results (eg intelligence). this is a problem as it increases the internal validity and may confound the results
  • requires twice as many ppts as a repeated measures design: more ppts are needed with this design to achieve the same amount of data. this is a problem as it means more ppts need to be recruited which is more costly and time consuming
71
Q

What is a matched pairs design?

A
  • where different ppts are used in each condition but they have been matched into pairs based on important characteristics that may influence the results
72
Q

What are the advantages of matched pairs designs? [2]

A
  • doesn’t suffer from order effects: the order the ppts complete the different conditions does not affect the performance as they only complete one condition, so will not compete better due to practise or worse due to boredom. this is positive as it increases the internal validity
  • low demand characteristics: the ppts have less chance of guessing the aim of the study and therefore change their behaviour. this is positive as it increases the study’s internal validity
73
Q

What are the disadvantages of matched pairs designs? [2]

A
  • less control of participant variables than repeated measures design: although ppts have been matched on important criteria to control the participant variables more than independent groups design, there is still more chance of individual differences that could unfairly influence the results. this is a problem as it decreases the internal validity which many confound the results
  • requires twice as many ppts as a repeated measures design: more ppts are needed with this design to achieve the same amount of data. this is a problem as it means more ppts need to be recruited which is more costly and time consuming
74
Q

What is event sampling?

A
  • involves continuously watching a certain behaviour or event and counting the number of times that event occurs in a target individual or group
  • this ensures no behaviours are missed and generates a great deal of data for analysis
75
Q

What is time sampling?

A
  • involves watching and recording behaviour at specific time intervals (eg recording behaviours every 30 seconds in a 10 minute period)
76
Q

What are the strengths of event sampling? [1]

A
  • full picture of behaviour, not missing as much as time sampling
77
Q

What are the weaknesses of event sampling? [1]

A
  • difficult to maintain concentration and record all behaviours accurately
78
Q

What are the strengths of time sampling? [1]

A
  • to test the inter observer reliability as both observers record at the same time
79
Q

What are the disadvantages of time sampling? [1]

A
  • miss behaviours between intervals so recordings are low in validity
80
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A
  • dividing a target behaviour (such as stress, aggression or affection) into a subset of specific, observable behaviours
  • these categories must be clearly operationalised
81
Q

What is random allocation and why is it used?

A
  • this is a way of controlling researcher bias from the process of allocating ppts to conditions in an independent groups design
  • it involves assigning all the ppts a number and putting the numbers in a hat
  • numbers are then drawn out so that every other number goes into condition A
  • this helps reduce issues of bias and help control participant variables
82
Q

What is counterbalancing and why is it used?

A
  • this is a way of controlling order effects in a repeated measures design
  • this involves half of the ppts starting in condition A followed by condition B and half the ppts starting in condition B followed by condition A
  • often referred to as ABBA
  • this balances out the problem of order effects as it means it is not always the same condition performing better due to practice or worse due to boredom
83
Q

What are ethical issues?

A
  • ethical issues refer to conflicts about what is acceptable in research
  • researchers have a responsibility to protect the rights and best interests of the ppts when they study (aka to conduct their research in an ethical manner)
84
Q

What is the ethical issues of ‘deception’ and why is it problematic?

A
  • this issue occurs when the ppts are deliberately misled about the true nature of the study (eg telling the ppts it is a study on one thing when it is actually a study of something else)
  • this is an issue because informed consent cannot be gained as the ppts do not truly know what they are consenting to
  • it nah also cause the participant to become distrustful of psychology studies in future
85
Q

How do we deal with the ethical issue of deception?

A
  • tell the ppts the real aim of the study in the debrief at the end and ask if they are still happy to participate
86
Q

What is the ethical issues of ‘lack of informed consent’ and why is it problematic?

A
  • this involves revealing the true aims and purpose of the research to participants before giving them the choice of consenting or refusing to participate in the research
  • informed consent is not possible to be gained when: deception is being used, ppts are unaware they are taking part in research (eg covert observations)
87
Q

How do we deal with the ethical issue of lack of informed consent?

A
  • tell them they have been in research and ask them if they consent (retrospectively)
  • presumptive consent (asking a similar group if they would be willing to take part)
88
Q

What is the ethical issues of ‘lack of protection from harm’ and why is it problematic?

A
  • refers to the researchers responsibility to ensure ppts come to no more harm than they would in everyday life
  • refers to both psychological and physical harm
  • the researcher should aim to ensure that the ppts leave the experiment in the same state as they arrived
89
Q

How do we deal with the ethical issue of lack of protection from harm?

A
  • in the debrief we should check the ppt is okay, provide contact details if further support is needed and provide therapy if needed
90
Q

What is the ethical issues of ‘lack of right to withdraw’ and why is it problematic?

A
  • ppts must be made aware before, during and after the investigation that it is their right to leave the study at any time they choose
91
Q

How do we deal with the ethical issue of lack of right to withdraw?

A
  • we should remind them at the start, middle and end of the research and give the opportunity for retrospective withdrawal in the debrief
  • destroy the results if they choose to withdraw
92
Q

What is the ethical issues of ‘lack of confidentiality’ and why is it problematic?

A
  • ppts have the right for their data to remain anonymous
  • personal details (eg their name) should not be given away by the researchers during the investigation or afterwards on publication of the research report
  • restrict information which might allow others to identify that individual
93
Q

How do we deal with the ethical issue of lack of confidentiality?

A
  • explain that ppts will be numbers or initials and not names
  • do not publish research that bad the potential to identify ppts
94
Q

What should consent forms include?

A
  • thank the ppt for their involvement
  • inform them of the true sins of the study (or false aims if they are being deceived)
  • instruct them on what they will be doing
  • how long it may take
  • outline ethical considerations
  • ask for their signature and date of the consent
95
Q

What should debriefs include?

A
  • thank them for participating
  • explain true sins of study and why it was necessary to lie if they did
  • give details of what happened in the other condition
  • outline any ethical considerations
  • ask if they have any questions
96
Q

What are the limitations of
deception? [2]

A
  • demand characteristics
  • damaged reputation of psychology
97
Q

What are the limitations of
informed consent? [2]

A
  • demand characteristics
  • low internal validity
98
Q

What are the limitations of
protection from harm? [1]

A
  • lack of real life application (eg stress management techniques)
99
Q

What are the limitations of
right to withdraw? [2]

A
  • lack of ppts (ppt attrition): reduced sample size if people leave
  • hard to generalise
100
Q

What are the limitations of
confidentiality? [1]

A
  • may not get a full picture of factors affecting behaviour (eg career, age)

Psychology Paper 1 (28 decks)

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