Research methods: section 1 ‘the methods’

Question 1

What are laboratory experiments?

Answer 1

• laboratory experiments are studies that aim to establish a cause and effect relationship between an IV and a DV

Question 2

What type of environment are laboratory experiments conducted in and what procedures are used?

Answer 2

• they are conducted in a controlled environment
• using standard procedures

Question 3

What are the advantages of a laboratory experiment and why? [2]

Answer 3

• high degree of control over variables: research is conducted in the controlled setting of a laboratory which allows extraneous variables to be controlled (eg temperature or noise)
• this is a strength as the research will measure what it intends to measure, giving it high internal validity
• easy to replicate: because the research conditions are carefully controlled, the conditions used for one study can be easily repeated (eg same temperature and noise)
• this is a strength as it means the findings can be easily tested for reliability (eg consistency)

Question 4

What are the disadvantages of a laboratory experiment and why? [2]

Answer 4

• high demand characteristics: the scientific setting of the laboratory means that participants are aware they are taking part in research which may cause them to change their behaviour by thinking they have worked out the aim of the research and start behaving differently to give the researcher the results they think they want
• this is a disadvantage as it means the study is not measuring their true behaviour which lowers the study’s external validity
• low ecological validity: the research takes place in the artificial setting of a laboratory so it may not reflect the participants’s natural behaviour in the real world
• this is a disadvantage as the findings cannot be generalised to real life settings

Question 5

What is a field experiment?

Answer 5

• study that aim to establish a cause and effect relationship between an IV and DV

Question 6

What environment are field experiments conducted in?

Answer 6

• they are conducted outside the laboratory in real life environments or situations (eg in the street)

Question 7

What are the advantages of a field experiment and why? [2]

Answer 7

• high ecological validity: the research takes place in a real life setting so it should reflect the participants’s natural behaviour
• this is an advantage because the findings can be generalised to other real life settings
• low demand characteristics: because the research does not take place in the scientific setting of the laboratory, the participants are usually unaware they are taking part in research so will not change their behaviour
• this is an advantage because it means that the study is measuring their true behaviour which increases the study’s external validity

Question 8

What are the disadvantages of a field experiment and why? [2]

Answer 8

• low degree of control over variables: the research is conducted outside the controlled setting of a laboratory which makes it difficult for extraneous variables to be controlled (eg same temperature and noise levels)
• this is a disadvantage as the research will not be able to only measure what it intends to measure, giving it low internal validity
• difficult to replicate: the conditions used for one study will be very difficult to repeat in the same way (eg same temperature or noise levels)
• this is a disadvantage as it means the findings cannot be very easily tested for reliability

Question 9

What is a natural experiment?

Answer 9

• studies that aim to establish a cause and effect relationship between an IV and DV

Question 10

What is different about the IV’s in a natural experiment?

Answer 10

• the IV varies naturally and is not deliberately changed by the researcher

Question 11

What are the advantages of a natural experiment and why? [2]

Answer 11

• high ecological validity: the research usually takes place in a real life setting so it should reflect the participants’s natural behaviour
• this is an advantage because the findings can be generalised to other real life settings
• provides opportunities for research that may not otherwise take place: allows researchers to study situations where it is not possible to manipulate variables (eg if it is unethical or impractical to manipulate the variables)
• this is an advantage as they allow researchers to gain increased knowledge and understanding of situations where it is otherwise not possible to do so

Question 12

What are the disadvantages of a natural experiment and why? [2]

Answer 12

• random allocation to conditions is not possible: because the conditions of the IV vary naturally, the condition participants are in also occurs naturally which may be biased in some way
• this is a disadvantage as the research is i’ll not be able to only measure what is intended to measure, giving it low internal validity
• difficult to replicate: conditions used for one study will be very difficult to repeat in the exact same way (eg same noise levels or temperature)
• this is a disadvantage as it means the findings cannot be very easily tested for reliability

Question 13

What is a quasi experiment?

Answer 13

• studies that aim to establish a cause and effect relationship between an IV and DV

Question 14

What is different about the IV’s in a quasi experiment?

Answer 14

• the IV does not vary at all because the conditions already exist (eg gender)

Question 15

What are the advantages of a quasi experiment and why? [2]

Answer 15

• high ecological validity: the research usually takes place in a real life setting so it should reflect to participants’s natural behaviour and not act unnaturally
• this is an advantage because the findings can be generalised to other real life settings
• provides opportunities for research that may not otherwise take place: this allowed researchers to study situations where it is not possible to manipulate variables (eg when studying the effects of age or gender)
• this is an advantage as they allow researchers to gain increased knowledge and understanding of situations where it is otherwise not possible to do so

Question 16

What are the disadvantages of a quasi experiment and why? [2]

Answer 16

• random allocation to conditions is not possible: because the conditions of the IV already exists, the condition participants are in also already exists which may be biased in some way
• this is a disadvantage as the research will not be able to only measure what is intended to measure, giving it low internal validity
• difficult to replicate: the conditions used for one study will be very difficult to repeat in the same way (eg same temperature or noise levels)
• this is a disadvantage as it means the findings cannot be very easily tested for reliability

Question 17

What is an observation?

Answer 17

• observations involve watching ppts and recording their behaviour
• all observational techniques are non experimental (eg with no IV or DV and no attempt to establish a cause and effect)

Question 18

What is a naturalistic observation?

Answer 18

• watching and recording behaviour in a natural situation where the researcher does not influence the situation of ppts in any way
• the aim is to record real life behaviour
• eg watching infants play at nursery or observing animals in a zoo may be seen as naturalistic as the environment in normal to them

Question 19

What is a controlled observation?

Answer 19

• involves watching and recording behaviour in an environment which has been regulated and controlled by the researcher (eg in a laboratory)
• this allows the researcher to test very specific situations whilst also reducing the influence of extraneous variables
• eg observing infants’ responses as they experience a series of pre planned situations

Question 20

What are the strengths of a naturalistic observation? [2]

Answer 20

• high external validity
• no demand characteristics

Question 21

What are the limitations of a naturalistic observation? [2]

Answer 21

• ethical issues (no informed consent)
• hard to replicate

Question 22

What are the strengths of a controlled observation? [2]

Answer 22

• informed consent
• easy to replicate

Question 23

What are the limitations of a controlled observation? [2]

Answer 23

• demand characteristics
• lacks validity

Question 24

What is an overt observation?

Answer 24

• when ppts are made aware that their behaviour is being watched and recorded, regardless if the setting in which they are being observed
• as this awareness often impact on how naturally ppts behave, observed may try to be as unobtrusive as possible (eg hiding behind a two way mirror, hidden from view)
• this is still classed as overt if ppts knew beforehand they were being observed

Question 25

What is a covert observation?

Answer 25

• when ppts are not aware that their behaviour is being watched and recorded
• in a covert observation, ppts will not have given their informed concept to take part
• behaviour is observed in secret such as from a balcony or hidden camera
• such behaviour must be public and happening anyway if the observation is to be viewed as ethical

Question 26

What is a strength of overt observations?

Answer 26

• no ethical issues

Question 27

What is a limitation of overt observations?

Answer 27

• hard to replicate

Question 28

What is a strength of covert observations?

Answer 28

• high validity

Question 29

What is a limitation of covert observations?

Answer 29

• ethical issues (no informed consent given)

Question 30

What is a non participant observation?

Answer 30

• when the researcher remains separate from the people they are studying and records behaviour in a more objective manner
• the observer watches the behaviour from a distance and does not interact with the people being observed
• this is more common than participant observations, partly because it may often be impractical or impossible to join a particular group, so non participation is the only option

Question 31

What is a participant observation?

Answer 31

• when the observer is part of the group being observed
• the observer watches the behaviour from within the social situation being studied, acting as one of the group and even interacting with the group being observed (which may affect their objectivity)
• (eg joining a criminal gang or researching what it is like being a worker in a factory by joining the workforce and producing a first hand account rather than simply observing workers from a distance

Question 32

What are the strengths of participant observations?

Question 33

What are the limitations of participant observations?

Question 34

What are the strengths of non participant observations?

Question 35

What are the limitations of non participant observations?

Question 36

What is a questionnaire / self report?

Answer 36

• a set of written questions on a topic to assess the ppts thoughts, feelings and opinions
• questionnaires are always pre determined and structured unlike interviews which can be structured or unstructured
• questionnaires can include open or closed questions or a mixture of both

Question 37

What is a closed question?

Answer 37

• fixed choice response
• may involve questions with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response or a fixed scale (eg rate 1-10)
• collects quantitative data

Question 38

What is an open question?

Answer 38

• does not have a fixed range of answers
• respondents are free to answer in any way they wish
• collects qualitative data

Question 39

What is an interview?

Answer 39

• involved asking ppts face to face on a topic to assess the ppts’ thoughts, feelings and opinions
• range from structured (pre set list of questions) and unstructured (free flowing conversation)
• semi structured interviews are a mixture of these two approaches

Question 40

What are the advantages of questionnaires? [3]

Answer 40

• quick and cheap
• limited responses (quantitative)
• anonymity = honest, larger sample

Question 41

What are the disadvantages of questionnaires? [2]

Answer 41

• low response rates
• social desirability bias

Question 42

What are the advantages of interviews? [3]

Answer 42

• in depth responses (qualitative)
• can see body language
• more understanding

Question 43

What are the disadvantages of interviews? [2]

Answer 43

• time consuming and costly
• social desirability bias

Question 44

What is a structured interview?

Answer 44

• made up of a pre determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order
• similar to the design of questionnaires
• allows the interview to follow a much more standardised format for each ppt
• only difference between questionnaire and structured interview is that the interview is conducted face to face

Question 45

What is an unstructured interview?

Answer 45

• work much more like a free flowing conversation with no set questions
• there is a general aim that a topic will be discussed and interaction tends to be free flowing with new questions developed during the course of the interview
• the interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate on their answers as prompted by the interviewer

Question 46

What are the strengths of structured interviews? [2]

Answer 46

• standardised = reliable = easy to replicated
• can compare answers

Question 47

What are the limitations of structured interviews? [2]

Answer 47

• less detail, can only ask a certain set of questions
• social desirability bias

Question 48

What are the strengths of unstructured interviews? [2]

Answer 48

• better understanding due to qualitative data
• ppts more at ease

Question 49

What are the limitations of unstructured interviews? [2]

Answer 49

• cannot get same answers, difficult to compare
• social desirability bias

Question 50

What are semi structured interviews?

Answer 50

• often used as a compromised between these two interview types
• there may be a list of predetermined questions but also freedom for the interviewer to ask follow up questions when they feel it is appropriate

Question 51

What is a case study?

Answer 51

• an in depth investigation of a single individual, group, institution or event
• they often involve analysis of unusual individuals or events such as a person with a rare disorder
• case studies make use of a range of methods/techniques and use a range of sources too, such as the person involved and also their friends and family
• aims to use objective and systematic methods
• psychologists may use IQ or personality tests or some other type of questionnaire to produce psychological data about the target person or group
• they may also use the experimental method to test what they can and cannot do
• produces qualitative data
• quantitative data may also be included such as scores from the psychological tests
• take place over a long period of time (longitudinal)

Question 52

What are the advantages of case studies? [2]

Answer 52

• provides rich, detailed data / holistic. the use of case histories and multiple testing techniques enables researchers to build an in depth analysis of the case being studied. this is positive as it can help to identify important factors that might be overlooked by other more ‘superficial’ methods
• allows behaviours that would be unethical to deliberately manipulate to be studied. for example they enable specific forms of brain damage (eg clive wearing) or cases of extreme child neglect (eg genie) to be investigated. this is positive as it helps provide unique insights that would not be possible using other methods

Question 53

What are the disadvantages of case studies? [3]

Answer 53

• may lack validity due to their focus on very limited samples sizes which make it difficult to generalise the findings to a larger population, may also lack internal validity due to social desirability bias, memory decay and inaccuracy (especially if the topic is focused on childhood) this is a problem as they may be seen as less scientific than other research methods
• ethical issues. informed consent and confidentiality can be problematic in producing a case study (eg when real names are not given, many cases are still easily identifiable because of their unique characteristics, and many individuals are unable to give their true informed consent if they are too young). this is a problem as case studies may go against the ethical code of conduct

Question 54

What are correlations?

Answer 54

• research which analyses the strength and direction of a relationship (or association) between two co-variables

Question 55

What are co-variables?

Answer 55

• the name given to the variables in a correlation that are being analysed to see if they have a relationship

Question 56

What type of data do correlations require and why?

Answer 56

• require quantitative data (numerical data) which is plotted on a scattergram

Question 57

What are the types of correlations? [3]

Answer 57

• positive correlations
• negative correlations
• zero correlations

Question 58

How would you measure the amount of revision quantatively?

Answer 58

• number of hours

Question 59

How would you measure exam performance quantatively?

Answer 59

• score / %

Question 60

What is the difference between correlations and experiments?

Answer 60

• experiments: one variable is manipulated (the IV) whilst one is measured (the DV) which allows the researcher to establish a cause and effect relationship between variables
• correlation: there is no manipulation of one variable and therefore it is not possible to establish cause and effect. a correlation measures two variables (co variables) and simply established an association or relationship

Question 61

What are positive correlations and an example?

Answer 61

• as one covariable increases, so does the other
• for example, the more caffeine people drink the higher their level of anxiety

Question 62

What are negative correlations and an example?

Answer 62

• as one covariable increases the other decreases
• for example, the more caffeine people drink, the less sleep they have

Question 63

What are zero correlations and an example?

Answer 63

• no relationship (or association) between the covariables
• for example, no relationship between peoples height and their intelligence

Question 64

How do you plot scattergrams?

Answer 64

• for each participant in a correlation, we obtain two scores (eg hours of revision per week and mark on exam) which are used to plot on dot on the scattergram for that individual
• the covariables determine the X and Y position of the dot
• the scatter of the dots indicates the degree of the correlation between the covariables

Question 65

What is a correlation coefficient?

Answer 65

• this is a number that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between two covariables
• the correlation coefficient varies in a scale between -1 and +1
• -1 represents a perfect negative correlation, +1 represents a perfect positive correlation and 0 represents no correlation
• 0.67 represents a strong positive correlation, -0.30 represents a weak negative correlation

Question 66

What are the advantages of correlational analysis? [2]

Answer 66

• easy to analyse: uses quantitative data which allow scattergrams and correlation coefficients to be produced for results to be clear at a glance. for example, correlation coefficients clearly show the strength and direction of a relationship between variables. this is positive because it enables the researcher to compare and contrast results easily
• further research: correlational analysis can identify if there is a link between variables which may open up new lines of research. for example, further research using the experimental method could then be used to indicate the chances of the relationship being a cause and effect relationship. this is positive because further research would then help to expand our understanding of the world

Question 67

What are the disadvantages of correlational analysis? [2]

Answer 67

• does not establish cause and effect: correlations only establish a relationship / association between two covariables but cannot say that one covariable caused the change in the other. for example just because healthier diets may be linked to better performance in a memory test this does not mean that a good diet causes better memory. this is problematic as it limits the extent to which the research can draw firm conclusions from the research
• the third variable problem: we cant be sure the relationship that exists is due to the two variables being studied and not due to a third variable that is not measured. for example, studying the link between stress and illness we assume that they are linked however it may be that stress reduces the amount of sleep that a person is able to have and it is lack of sleep (the third variable) that increases illness, not stress. this is problematic because it means correlation might be misleading