Research Methods - Paper 2 Flashcards
Kind of in all papers
What is an aim?
A statement about the purpose of the research study/why the study is being carried out.
What is a hypothesis?
A clear, precise and testable statement that allows the researcher to predict the outcome of an investigation
What is a null hypothesis?
Predicts no difference between variables. Predicts any difference will be due to chance
What is an experimental hypothesis?
Predicts a significant difference or that the IV will cause a change in the DV
What is a correlational hypothesis?
Predicts a significant relationship or correlation between two variables
When should you use a directional hypothesis?
When predicting a difference and there is previous research to indicate an outcome
When should you use a non-directional hypothesis?
When predicting a difference and there is NO previous research to indicate an outcome
What is a directional hypothesis?
Predicts the direction of the difference e.g., one condition will perform better or worse than another. These hypotheses are used when the researcher is confident of the likely result
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
Does not predict the direction of the difference just simply states that there is a difference between conditions. These are used when the researcher is less confident of the result
What is an example of a non-directional hypothesis?
There will be a significant difference in the DV between those who IV
What is an example of a directional hypothesis?
Participants (Condition 1 of IV) will be (DV - faster, higher, more, less et.) than participants (Condition 2 of IV)
What is an example of a null hypothesis?
There will be no difference between the two conditions
What are extraneous variables?
Any variable other than the IV which might influence the DV. Researchers try to control these so they don’t effect the DV
What are the two main extraneous variables?
Situational and participant
What are situational variables?
Any aspect of the research situation other than the IV that might influence participant’s behaviour/results (DV)
What are participant variables?
Any characteristic or traits of the participant other than the IV that might affect the results (DV)
What are confounding variables?
A variable that does affect the DV in a study which are uncontrolled.
E.g., if researchers wanted to test the effect of background music or silence on homework performance using two different groups of pupils, they would need to control extraneous variables such as age and homework difficulty. If participants in one condition were more intelligent this would be a confounding variable.
What are demand characteristics?
Clues of the experimental situation which help a participant to guess the experimenter’s aim of the study and as a result, participants change their behaviour and are no longer behaving naturally
What are investigator effects?
Any unwanted influence of the investigator on the DV (research outcome) e.g., personality, gender, age, facial expressions, leading questions. The researcher may also be biased when selecting participants
How do we overcome research issues?
Randomisation, standardisation and single or double blind procedures
What is randomisation?
Method used to minimise effect of extraneous/confounding variables. Prevents investigator effects in the allocation of participants and reduces unconscious bias.
What is standardisation?
All participants should be subject to the same environment, information and experience. To ensure this, all procedures and instructions are standardised and kept the same
What are single blind procedures?
Demand characteristics can be controlled. This is where participants are unaware of the research aims and hypothesis and do not know which condition they are in
What are double blind procedures?
Where both researcher collecting the data and the participant are unaware of the aims and hypotheses to prevent demand characteristics
What are experimental designs?
The way that participants are used in experiments
What are the 3 experimental designs?
Repeated measures, matched pairs and independent groups
What is repeated measures?
One group of participants take part in both conditions
What are the strengths of repeated measures?
Participant variables are minimised because the same participants take part in both conditions of the experiment so increases internal validity
Half the number of participants is needed meaning the researcher can save time and money
What is a limitation of repeated measures?
Order effects may occur e.g., boredom and practice. Demand characteristics are also more likely to occur lowering the internal validity
How can order effects be controlled?
By counterbalancing. ABBA technique. Counterbalancing doesn’t remove or prevent order effects but attempts to balance them out
What are independent groups?
Different participants are used in each condition. Each participant only experiences one condition
What is a strength of independent groups?
There are no order effects because participants only take part in one condition reducing the possibility of boredom and demand characteristics
What is a limitation of independent groups?
Participant variables can occur because there may be individual differences between the two groups of participants that could affect the results
How can participant variables be controlled?
By randomly allocating participants to conditions they will have an equal chance of being allocated to a particular condition minimising the effect of individual differences
What is matched pairs?
Different participants used in each condition but they are paired on a variable that could affect the results if left unchecked e.g., age or intelligence. One partner from each pair would be randomly allocated to condition 1 and 2
What are the strengths of matched pairs?
Participant variables are minimised because participants are matched on important variables therefore individual differences between groups are unlikely increasing internal validity
The design isn’t affected by order effects as participants only take part in one condition increasing internal validity
What is a limitation of matched pairs?
It is time consuming because participants are often pre-tested to match them up. If one partner drops out, the researcher risks losing both members making it less economic than other designs
What are laboratory experiments?
The researcher manipulates the IV to see what effect it has on the DV. They aim to establish cause and effect and take place in a controlled environment using standardised procedures
What are the strengths of laboratory experiments?
- Due to the controlled setting, the experimenter cant control extraneous variables such as noise. Any change in the DV is likely to be caused by the IV increasing internal validity
- Can be easily replicated. This is a strength because it allows researchers to see whether findings are consistently found so can make conclusions about reliability
What are the limitations of laboratory experiments?
- Lack generalisability due to their controlled artificial setting. Participants may behave differently in real life. This means results cannot be confidently generalised to real life settings lowering ecological validity
- Due to the artificial nature of the setting and participants being aware they’re in a study, this may result in demand characteristics this lowers internal validity because participant behaviour may change meaning they are not measuring what they intended to
What are field experiments?
The researcher manipulates the IV to see what effect it has on the DV. They aim to establish cause and effect and are conducted in real life settings in a participants natural environment
What are the strengths of field experiments?
- It is reflective of natural behaviour because it takes place in a real-life setting. This is a strength because it mean that findings from field experiments can be confidently generalised so there is high ecological validity
- There is less chance of demand characteristics as participants are usually unaware they’re being studies increasing internal validity
What are the limitations of field experiments?
- Due to the high levels of realism, there is loss of control of extraneous variables. Cause and effect is more difficult to establish lowering internal validity
- Precise replication is often impossible and often break ethical issues because participants cannot consent
What is a natural experiment?
The study of a naturally occurring event as it unfolds in the real world. The IV is changed by natural occurrence rather than through experimenter manipulation. This type of experiment is often used when it is not ethically or practically possible to manipulate the IV
What is an example of a natural experiment?
Rutter and the Romanian oprhans
What are the strengths of natural experiments?
- Allows situations and behaviours to be studied where it may not have been practically or ethically possible e.g., Romanian orphans
- As research usually takes place in participant’s natural environment then they should be behaving as they would in real life meaning findings can be generalised and have high ecological validity
What are the limitations of natural experiments?
- Unable to randomly allocated participants to the conditions meaning the experimenter is less sure whether the IV affected the DV
- The researcher wouldn’t be able to replicate a natural experiment since they would not be able to find the exact same conditions naturally occurring so isn’t possible to check reliability
What are quasi experiments?
These experiments have an IV based on an already existing difference between people e.g., gender, height, educational level.
What is an example of a quasi experiment?
Sheridan and King’s study on obedience. Here male and female participants were compared on their ability to deliver real electric shocks to a puppy
What are the strengths of quasi experiments?
- Can be used when there are practical or ethical reasons why participants cannot put into randomised conditions allowing researchers to gain valuable insights into behaviours that may not be possible to study otherwise
- High control because the experiment is carried out in controlled conditions so is possible to draw casual conclusions
What are the limitations of quasi experiments?
- Not possible to randomly allocate participants to conditions because the IV already exists. Possible for participant variables to influence DV lowering internal validity
- Usually take place in controlled settings so participants are more likely to be influenced by demand characteristics lowering internal validity because they aren’t measuring what they intended to
What is a population?
A group of people the researcher is interest in, from which a smaller sample is drawn
What is the target population?
A subset of the general population
What is a sample?
A group of people who take part in a research investigation
What are sampling techniques?
The specific method used to select people from the target population
What is bias?
When certain groups are over or under represented within the sample e.g, Asch and his all male sample
What is generalisation?
Applying the results from the sample to the target population
What are the 5 sampling techniques?
Random, opportunity, volunteer, stratified and systematic
What is random sampling?
Where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected e.g., names in a hat
What is opportunity sampling?
This involves selecting people who are willing and available to take part at the time of the research
What is volunteer sampling?
People put themselves forward to participate often responding to newspaper adverts placed by researchers
What is systematic sampling?
Every nth member of the target population is selected
What is stratified sampling?
This involves the researcher dividing the population into subpopulations. Researchers then ensure each subgroup is represented in their sample
What are the strengths of random sampling?
It is unbiased because the researcher has no influence meaning the sample will be free from researcher bias. Everyone has equal opportunity of being selected increasing representativeness
What are the limitations of random sampling?
It may be impossible to obtain the names of everyone in the target population. Also not everyone selected will be willing to take part
What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?
Quick and convenient because researcher just makes use of people who are available at the time
What are the limitations of opportunity sampling?
Very unrepresentative and may be biased on the part of the researcher who may chose ‘helpful’ participants
What are the strengths of volunteer sampling?
Participants are motivated and eager to take part and will take the study more seriously
What are the limitations of volunteer sampling?
Likely to be biased sample because participants who volunteer often share certain characteristics e.g., helpful. Therefore may be problems when generalising from biased sample
What are the strengths of systematic sampling?
Avoids researcher bias. Once the system for selection has been established the researcher has no influence over who is chosen
What are the limitations of systematic sampling?
It can be time consuming and not everyone in the target population has na equal chance of being selected
What are the strengths of stratified sampling?
This technique is representative of the target population since the characteristics of the target population are represented proportionally. This means that it is more likely that the findings from this sample can be generalised
What are the limitations of stratified sampling?
Can be very time consuming since the subcategories have to be identified and their proportions in the target populations calculated
What is the ethical issues acronym?
DIDCRAP
What are the ethical issues?
Deception, informed consent, debrief, confidentiality, right to withdraw, anonymity and protection from harm
What is deception?
The psychologist deliberately misleads or withholds information at any stage during the experiment from the participants
What is informed consent?
The psychologist is making the participant aware of aims of the research, the procedures, their rights and how their data will be used
What is a debrief?
After the research has taken place, participants will be debriefed. A debrief is where they are told the aim, what happened and specifically to them. They are also told what will happen to their data
What is confidentiality?
Our right, enshrined in law under the Data Protection Act, to have any personal data protected. Privacy is the right to control information about yourself
What is right to withdraw?
The participant is given the option to remove information/data or themselves from the study at any point
What is anonymity?
Things such as names, location and any data isn’t known to anyone. The participants identify should be unknown and data if they require it
What is protection from harm?
There are measures to make sure participants aren’t placed at anymore psychological or physical harm/risk than in daily life
How do you deal with the ethical issue of informed consent?
Participants should be given a consent form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate
What is presumptive consent?
A similar group of people are asked if they think the study is acceptable. If they agree, consent is presumed for the original participant
What is prior general consent?
Consenting to a number of different studies including one that will involve deception. Basically consenting to be deceived
What is retrospective consent?
Consent asked having already taken part in the study. May not be aware of participation and may be subject to deception
How do you deal with the ethical issue of deception and protection from harm?
Participants should be given a full debrief which should contain the true aims of the investigation, right for participants to withdraw their data, reassurance that the participants behaviour was typical, if participants were stressed or embarrassed they may require counselling
How do you deal with the ethical issue of confidentiality?
If personal details are held, these must be protected/ However, it is more usual to simplify record no personal details. Researchers usually refer to participants using numbers or initials when writing up the investigation
How do you deal with cost-benefit analysis in research?
The cost-benefit analysis is a safeguard that should precede all research. It involves weighing up whether the ends justify the means. However this is subjective as it is difficult to predict outcomes and potential costs to participants
What is a pilot study?
This is a trial ru of the research study, but on a smaller scale. This takes place before the real research study is carried out. The sample of people taking part in the pilot study will be questioned afterwards about their experience
What is the purpose of conducting a pilot study?
It aims to find out if aspects of the design do or don’t work. By conducting a pilot study on a small group of people, it is possible for the researcher t see what needs to be adjusted before investigating time and money in the larger scale study
What is a case study?
A detailed study of an individual, group or situation. They often involve an analysis of unusual individuals or events e.g., a rare disorder. They tend to take place over a long period of time (longitudinal)
What are the strengths of case studies?
- Provide rich and valuable insights on very unusual and atypical forms of behaviour. This allows a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with many research participants. Findings are based on real life problems and issues increasing ecological validity
- Case studies provide a great detail of qualitative data that often generates ideas for future research
What are the limitations of case studies?
- It is not possible to generalise the findings from a single individual to the wider population. This is because it means the findings are only representative of the person who the study is focused, lacking population validity
- Case studies are criticised due to their subjective nature. A researcher must decide which info to include. in the final report and must interpret the vast quantities of qualitative data. Personal accounts from the participant and their family and friends may be prone to inaccuracy and memory decay lowering the validity
What are observations?
Involve watching or listening to behaviour and making records. They are non-experimental research methods
What are naturalistic observations?
Behaviour is studied in a real-life situation where everything has been left as it normally is
What are the strengths of naturalistic observations?
High ecological validity and low demand characteristics
What are the limitations of naturalistic obesrvations?
There is a lack of control over extraneous variables, such as background noise. This would mean that the validity of the findings may be low. Replication is more difficult in a natural setting
What is a controlled observation?
Participants are observed in a controlled setting. Participants are usually aware that they are being observed
What are the strengths of controlled observations?
Can be easily replicated due to the greater control over the research situation. This means that findings can be checked by replicating the study and seeing if consistent results are found
What are the limitations of controlled observations?
Lower ecological validity, high demand characteristics
What is a covert observation?
Participants are unaware they are being observed and their behaviour is being recorded secretly
What are the strengths of covert observations?
Demand characteristics are reduced because participants don’t know they are being watched so their behaviour will be natural increasing the validity of the findings
What are the limitations of covert observations?
Participants can’t consent so can’t withdraw
What is an overt observation?
Participants are aware they are being studied and have consented
What are the strengths of overt observations?
Informed consent and are more ethical
What are the limitations of overt observations?
Demand characteristics may be high because participants know they are being observed and may act differently as a result. If this occurs, then the validity of findings is questioned
What are participant observations?
Involve the researcher becoming part of the group they are studying
What are the strengths of participant observations?
First hand data. Better understanding of what participants feel
What are the limitations of participant observations?
There may be a loss of objectivity because the observer becomes part of the group they are observing and they may identity too strongly with them. If there is a lack of objectivity, then the validity will be affected
What are non-participant observations?
When the researcher remains separate from the group they are studying
What are the strengths of non-participant observations?
The findings may be more objective because the researcher maintains an objective distance so there is less chance of bias so findings are more valid
What are the limitations of non-participant observations?
More objective, may misinterpret events
What are behavioural categories?
Researchers often find it useful to break the target behaviour into a set of behaviour categories.
What are the 2 sampling methods?
Event and time
What is event sampling?
Involves counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs. All other behaviours are ignored and not recorded
What is time sampling?
Involves recording behaviours within a pre-established time frame. Behaviours observed in between the time sampling frames would be ignored and not recorded
What are the strengths of event sampling?
Ensures relevant behaviours are missed
What are the limitations of event sampling?
Observer may miss behaviour if only recording one behaviour continuous behaviour. Too complex - too many behaviours
What are the strengths of time sampling?
Less observations to be made
What are the limitations of time sampling?
The behaviours sampled may be unrepresentative. This is because relevant behaviours displayed outside the time frame are missed
What is inter-observer reliability?
To make data recording more objective and unbiased, observations should be carried out by at least two researchers. It is vital, however that pairs of observers record data in the same way. To improve reliability, observers should familiarise themselves with the behaviour categories being used. After observing the same behaviour at the same time, observers should compare and discuss and differences in interpretation.
What are questionnaires?
Technique involved using a structured set of written questions, for asking a large sample of people about their views, attitudes, and behaviours. Consist of open and closed questions
What are closed questions?
Fixed response questions. Yes or No. Produce quantitative data
What are open questions?
Allow participants to answer in any way they wish and to express opinions and feelings. Produce qualitative, detailed data
What are the strengths of questionnaires?
Cost effective because:
1. They gather large amounts of data because they can be distributed to a large number of people
2. A questionnaire can be completed without the researcher being present, as in the case of postal questionnaire
Can be easily replicated because they use structured questions which can be easily be redistributed to participants to determine whether similar findings are obtained so can make conclusions about reliability
What are the limitations of questionnaires?
- Participants may misinterpret questions and just guess at what a question means. Often produce a response bias which is where participants give the same answer to all questions lowering validity
- Participants may not answer truthfully because they want to be portrayed in a positive light. This is especially problematic with sensitive issues. When they fail to answer truthfully this is social desirability bias
What are interviews?
Face-to-face interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee.
What are structured interviews?
Involve a standard set of written questions being read out to each participant in the same manner and in the same order. Little training required
What are unstructured interviews?
More like a formal discussion about a topic. The interviewer will encourage the interviewee to expand on their answers by asking follow-up questions. Unstructured interviewers need to be skilled in conducting these types of interviews
What are leading questions?
These should be avoided because they guide the respondent towards a particular answer
What are double-barrelled questions?
These questions are confusing because they contain two questions in one. In such cases respondents may agree with one half of the question but not the other
What is a correlational analysis?
a non-experimental research method that measures relationship between two variables. It is then plotted on a scattergram. No changing of a variable so isn’t possible to establish causation
What is a non-directional correlational hypothesis?
Replace the word ‘difference’ with ‘relationship’ or ‘correlation’ e.g., There will be a significant relationship between ‘co-variables’
What is a directional correlational hypothesis?
Replace would ‘more/less’ with ‘positive/negative’. There will be a positive relationship between ‘co-variables’
What are the 3 types of correlation?
Positive, negative, zero
What is a positive correlation?
As one variable increases, so does the other
What is a negative correlation?
As one variable increases, the other decreases
What is a zero correlation?
There is no relationship between the two co-variables
What are correlational coeffeicients?
A number between 0 and -1 or +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationships. It is calculated using a statistical test. The stronger the relationship between the co-variables, the close to 1. The closer to 0, the weaker the relationship. +/- only indicates the direction of the relationship, not the strength
What are the strengths of correlations?
- As a correlational analysis doesn’t involve the manipulation of variables, it allows for some topic areas to be investigated which may not have been possible through experimental methods due to practical and ethical reasons
- Correlations are very useful as a preliminary research technique, allowing researchers to identify a link that can be further investigate through more controlled research
What are the limitations of correlations?
- It is not possible to establish cause and effect. This means this it is only possible to establish if a relationship exists. It isn’t possible to conclude that one variable caused the co-variable to increase or decrease. This is because a third variable may be responsible for increasing a co-variable. This is a limitation because it isn’t possible to draw firm conclusions from correlational research
- Correlations can be misused or misinterpreted.
What are the strengths of quantitative data?
Easy to analyse as it is statistically objective
What are the limitations of quantitative data?
Lack of detail - reductionist
What are the strengths of qualitative data?
Includes description - more detailed –> more understanding
What are the limitations of qualitative data?
-Time consuming
-Difficult to analyse/compare - subject to bias as it is open to interpretation
What is primary data?
Data collected by a researcher specifically for the purposes of their study. The data comes first hand from the participants. Data gathered using an experiment, questionnaire, interview, or observation would be classed as primary data
What are the strengths of primary data?
Authentic data obtained from participants –> questionnaires and interviews can be designed to specifically target information that the researcher requires
What are the limitations of primary data?
Requires considerable planning, preparation, and resources on behalf of the researcher
What is secondary data?
Data which has been collected by someone other than the person conducting the research. Data may be located in journal articles, books are websites. Statistical info by gov. - census, population records or employee absence
What are the strengths of secondary data?
Inexpensive requiring minimal effort and easy to access. Desired info may already exist so no need of primary data collection
What are the limitations of secondary data?
Substantial variation in quality and accuracy –> may be outdated on incomplete. Content of data may not match researchers need. May challenge validity of conclusions
What is meta-analysis?
A research method that uses secondary data. Data from lots of studies is combined to provide an overall view on a subject.
What are the strengths of meta-analysis?
Results can be generalised across much larger populations increasing validity. Larger more varied sample to be generalised across larger populations
What are the limitations of meta-analysis?
Prone to publication bias. Researcher may not select all relevant study choosing to leave out ones with negative non significant results –> only represent some of the relevant data
What are the measures of central tendency?
Mean, median and mode
What is the mean?
The arithmetic average. All cores in a data set are added together then divided by the number of scores. The mean is often used to show which group or condition has performed best or worst in a study (use for interval/ratio data)
What is the median?
Middle value when the scores are put in order from smallest to highest. When two scores are in the middle, they are added together and divided by two (use for ordinal data)
What is the mode?
The most frequently occurring score in the data set. When there are two or more equally common scores then there will be two or more modes (use for nominal data)
What are the measures of dispersion?
Range and standard deviation
What is the range?
The difference between the lowest and highest scores. The range provides a measure of the spread of scores within a data set. A large range indicates a large spread of data and vice versa
What is standard deviation?
Measures the dispersion of scores around the mean. The higher the standard deviation, the greater the spread of scores from the mean (all ps responded differently). A low standard deviation number indicates that scores are close to the mean (all ps responded in similar way)
What are the strengths of the mean?
It is more sensitive than the media, because it is calculated using all the scores in the data set
What are the limitations of the mean?
It can be misrepresentative if there is an extreme score
What are the strengths of the median?
It is not affected by extreme scores, so can give a representative score
What are the limitations of the median?
It is less sensitive than the mean, as it odes not take into account all of the scores
What are the strengths of the mode?
It is very easy to calculate. Also it is the only method you can use when the data is in categories
What are the limitations of the mode?
It is a very crude measure
What are the strengths of the range?
Quick and easy to calculate
What are the limitations of the range?
Affected by extreme values (outliers). Doesn’t take into account all values
What are the strengths of standard deviation?
Mire precise measure of dispersion because all values are taken into account
What are the limitations of standard deviation?
Much harder to calculate than the range
What are percentages?
A descriptive statistic
How do you calculate percentages?
part/whole x 100 = %
Which figures are signficant?
- All non-zero digits are significant
- Any zeros between significant digits are significant
- Trailing zeros to the right of a decimal point are significant
Round 0.0724591 to 3 sig figs
0.0725
Round 0.2300105 to 4 sig figs
0.2300
Round 648,942 to 2 sig figs
650000
Why are tables useful?
for presenting raw quantitative data before you have analysed it
Why are graphs useful?
Used for summarising data
When is a bar chart used?
When data is divided into categories
When is a scattergram used?
When depicting correlations
What is a histogram?
The bars touch, which shows that the data is continuous rather than discrete. The x-axis is made up of equal-sized intervals
What is a line graph?
Represent continuous data and use points connected by a line to show how something changes over time
What are the key features of a science?
Theory construction, hypothesis testing, objectivity, replicability, falsifiability and paradigm
What is theory construction?
We develop theories all the time to explain things we observe in our everyday life. Scientific theories are constructed by gathering evidence. It should be possible to make clear and precise predictions based on a scientific theory. It is essential that it can be scientifically tested
What is hypothesis testing?
A hypothesis is a precise, testable, statement of the expected outcomes of the study. They are created from a theory and are tested using systematic and objective methods. If the evidence fails to support the hypothesis, the theory is modified, and a new one is formulated. The process of deriving new hypotheses from an existing theory is known as deduction
What is objectivity?
This means that the findings gathered are factual and unaffected by the researcher’s beliefs, opinions, feelings, or expectations. A theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified. Empirical methods emphasise the importance of gaining data through direct, sensory experience
What is replicability?
A scientific theory can only be trusted if the findings from it are repeatable across a number of different contexts and circumstances. Confidence in research findings is increased when studies are repeated, and findings are similar. For replication to be possible, all details of the original study must be published, including the data, procedures and results
What is falsifiability?
This means that it should always be possible to prove a theory wrong. It must have a testable hypothesis. Popper says that rather than finding evidence to support a theory, scientists should actively try to find evidence to show that it is false. This is why Freud’s theories are unscientific.
What is a paradigm?
What distinguishes scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines is a shared set of assumption and methods (paradigm). Some psychologists argue psychology is a science because it has a paradigm, however some say psychology has too much internal disagreement and too many conflicting approaches to qualify as a science
A handful of researchers begin to question the accepted paradigm, this critique begins to gather popularity and pace and eventually a paradigm shift occurs when there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore
What is peer review?
The assessment of scientific work by others who are experts in the field, prior to publication
What are the aims of peer review?
- To allocate research funding: independent peer evaluation takes place to decide whether to award funding for a proposed research project
- To validate the quality of and relevance of research: all elements of research are assessed for quality and accuracy: the formulation of hypothesis, the methodology chosen, the statistical tests used, and the conclusions drawn
- To suggest amendments or improvements: reviewers may suggest minor revisions of the work and thereby improve the report or sometimes they may conclude that the work is inappropriate for publication and should be withdrawn
What doest he acronym Peer Views Are So Overrated mean?
Published
Validity
Appropriateness
Significance of contribution
Originality
What are the strengths of peer review?
- Acts as a control mechanism to help prevent flawed or fraudulent research from being published
- It ensures that research published is academically rigorous and therefore can be trusted in comparison to opinion and speculation
- It encourages the sharing of ideas between experts and collaboration in improvement of research
- As the process is anonymous, it is likely to produce an honest appraisal
What are the limitations of peer review?
- Reviewers may use their anonymity as a way of criticising rival researchers, especially if the findings contradict their own beliefs or research
- It slows down the publication process, especially when research findings are new and ground breaking
- As it is not always possible to find experts in a new area, it can result in such work being judged by researchers who do not fully understand research
- Publication bias has a tendency for editors of journals to publish ‘headline grabbing’ findings to increase their credibility and sales. They also tend to publish positive results. This could mean that research which doesn’t meet criteria is ignored
What are the general considerations and style of psychological reports?
Should be clearly written and not include personal opinions. It is preferred to write in the third tense.
What is the format of a psychological report?
- Title
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Method
- Results
- Discussion
- References
- Appendices
What is the title of a psychological report?
This should be precise enough to give the reader a good idea of the topic being investigated
What is the abstract in a psychological report?
This is a summary of the report. The abstract should include a summary of the theoretical background, the aim and hypotheses, the design method and participants, a brief outline of the results, the conclusions, and suggestions for future research. This appears first in a report but is left till the end to write
What is the introduction in a psychological report?
Explains why the research is being conducted. Covers the general theoretical background of the topic area being studied including controversies and investigations. Should begin with a broad perspective and then onto precise aims and hypothesis.
Aims: the overall aim of the research needs to included. The researcher needs to explain the purpose of the research study/why the study is being carried out
Hypothesis: The researcher should include a clearly operationalised experimental and null hypothesis
What is the method in a psychological report?
What the researcher has done. All details of the method should be reported so that other researchers would be able to replicate the study. It is split into:
Design: This section should include the choice of method e.g., lab, the type of design and justification, identification of variables, IV, DV and extraneous, controls used e.g., double blind and ethical considerations
Participants: A description of the sample including description of target population, the method used to obtain the sample e.g., random, description of the actual sample e.g., how many, how participants were allocated to conditions, whether participants were aware of the aims of study and whether any participants refused to take part
Apparatus/materials: description of any technical equipment used and how
Standardised procedure: how the research was conducted and should allow for exact replication. It should include what happened in the order that it happened, details of where the study took place, any standardised instructions, and debriefing procedures
What is the results in a psychological report?
What has happened and presents data collected
Descriptive stats: measures of central tendency and dispersion in a clearly labelled table. Summarised in graphical form
Inferential stats: State why you chose a particular test and what it tests for. Should explain clear outcome of statistical analysis. Observed and critical table values of the test, significance level and whether the test is one-tailed or two. Or if you will accept or reject their null hypothesis
What is the discussion in a psychological report?
Explanation of findings: discussion about findings. Should explain whether findings support or contradict their hypothesis and what findings mean in line with existing research. Most important findings and previous findings
Relationship to background research: Discuss their results in reference to previous research findings. Should refer back to relevant research studies mentioned in the introduction and mention any aspects of the design that could account for any differences in their findings and previous findings
Limitations and modifications: Outline what was done, what was intended and how things could have been improved or modified. Researchers may include limitations of the research such as problems with sampling or lack of controls
Implications and suggestions for further research: will make suggestions for further research arising directly out of their results for example specific suggestions for improving the research such as ideas for reducing confounding variables or further research that could eb conducted
What is the conclusion part of a psychological report?
The researcher may end with a paragraph the recaps the key findings and conclusions that can be drawn from the study
What is the references part of the psychological report?
To enable others to research the references. Within the text the researcher should include only the authors’ names and date of publication and then in the reference section the researcher should list full details of all references cited in the text
Surname, Initial, Date, Title, Location, Publisher
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What is the appendices in a psychological report?
Full instructions given to participants, raw data and calculations for statistical analysis, stimulus materials. The appendices should be numbered and referred to in the text and presented clearly
What is a normal distribution?
Should form a bell-shaped curve which is symmetrical. Most items are in the middle area of the curve and the mean, median and mode are in the same midpoint of the curve
What are the characteristics of normal distributions?
- Mean, median and mode are all at the exact same midpoint
- The data is symmetrical
- Consistent spread of scores either side of the midpoint. 68% lies within 1 standard deviation of the mean, 95% lies within 2 standard deviations of the mean and 99.7% within 3. This is the empirical rule
When would skewed distributions occur?
When data isn’t symmetrically spread around the mean. They mean to one side and are caused by outliers
What is a positive skewed distribution?
Where most of the scores are distributed the left of the graph. E.g., a very difficult test in which most people got low marks with only a handful at the higher end would produce a positive slew.
Long tail is in the right side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left
What is a negative skewed distribution?
A very easy test would produce a distribution where most scores are concentrated to the right. The king tail is in the left side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated in the right
What is correlational analysis?
A non-experimental research method that measures relationship between two variables. Data is plotted on a scatter gram
What is reliability?
A measure of consistency
What are the 2 ways of assessing reliability?
Test retest and inter-observer reliability
How do we assess test retest?
Participants are given a test to complete and are then given the same task in a later occasion. The participants responses are then correlated to identify if they have given similar responses in both occasions. If a correlation of 0.8 is established between tasks it is considered a reliable measure
How would we improve an investigation with test-retest?
If the correlation between the two tests is lower than 0.8 the researcher would need to review the measures and then carry out another test-retest in the new test
