Approaches - Paper 2

Question 1

What is Wundt’s contribution to psychology?

Answer 1

First person who attempted to make psychology scientific. He set up the first lab dedicated to psychological investigations. He also published one of the first books on psychology helping to establish it as a science

Question 2

What method did Wundt use?

Answer 2

He focused on studying the mind in more structured and scientific ways. He used the method of introspection to try and uncover what people were thinking and experiencing.

Question 3

What is introspection?

Answer 3

A psychological method of analysing your own thoughts and feelings internally. Wundt encouraged his participants to focus on their thoughts, images and sensations in response to different stimuli or different objects. His participant’s had to self-report what they were experiencing

Question 4

What are the 6 assumptions of the biological approach?

Answer 4

1. The influence of genes on behaviour
2. Genotype and phenotype
3. The genetic basis of behaviour
4. The influence of biological structures on behaviour
5. The influence of neurochemistry of behaviour
6. Evolutionary theory of behaviour

Question 5

What is the influence of genes on behaviour assumption of the biological approach?

Answer 5

The body is made up of trillions of cells. Within most cells in the human body, is a nucleus. This contains 46 chromosomes. These are made up from DNA. The DNA on each chromosome carries the units of information called genes. Our genes interact with the environment to influence every aspect of our bodily structure and function

Question 6

What is the genotype and phenotype assumption of the biological approach?

Answer 6

Genotype: this is an individual’s genetic make-up. This occurs at conception and provides the genetic code for how that individuals will develop. Everyone is thought to have 100,000 genes. The genotype dictates characteristics such as eye and hair colour. Each individual has a genotype that is unique to them

Phenotype: This is the product of what happens when the genotype interacts with the environment. With a physical characteristic such as height the genotype dictates the height an individual can reach but environmental factors such as nutrition will affect how likely the person is to achieve their potential height

Question 7

What is the genetic basis of behaviour assumption of the biological approach?

Answer 7

Behavioural geneticists are interested in the degree to which psychological characteristics such as ability, personality and emotional stability are transmitted from parent to offspring. Some of the well-researched human psychological characteristics that are thought to be influenced by genes: intelligence, psychological disorders and male and female differences

Question 8

What is the influence of biological structures on behaviour assumption of the biological approach?

Answer 8

Believes that an understanding of biological structures and their associated functions can explain psychological processes and characteristics.

Neurons: these are the basic building blocks of the nervous system. They are nerve cells which are specialised to receive, process and transmit information to other cells within the body

The CNS: Made up of the brain and spinal cord. The brain can be subdivided into many different areas and structures which are thought to be responsible for certain behaviours. The brain relies on a large number of neurotransmitters to send signals between neurons. Too much or too little can result in over or under activity in various parts of the brain, which results in changes to thinking, feelings and behaviour
The spinal cord recites and passes messages to and from the brain and connects to nerves in the peripheral nervous system

The PNS: This is made up of neurons that transmit messages or information to and from the CNS. It has two subsystems: the somatic and autonomic nervous system

Somatic nervous system: transmits information received by the senses to the central nervous system and sends messages from the CNS to the muscles

Autonomic nervous system: it is divided into the sympathetic which increases bodily activities and the parasympathetic which maintains or decreases bodily activities

Question 9

What is the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour assumption of the biological approach?

Answer 9

Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers in the brain transmitted via cerebral fluid.
When a nerve impulse reaches the end of a neuron, a neurotransmitter is released. It travels from one neuron to the next across a synapse.

There are many different types of neurotransmitters, some trigger the receiving neuron to send an impulse, and some stop it from doing so. Those neurotransmitters that trigger nerve impulses in the receiving neuron and stimulate the brain into action are called excitatory neurotransmitters. Those that inhibit nerve impulses to calm the brain and balance mood are called inhibitory neurotransmitters.

These chemicals are seen to be very important by biological psychologists as they are thought to affect behaviour. Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is associated with our ‘drive’ and motivation. High levels of dopamine are related to schizophrenia. Serotonin is an inhibitory transmitter, adequate amounts of which are necessary to maintain a stable mood. Low levels of serotonin are related to depression.

Hormones: hormones are biochemical substances that are produced by glands in the endocrine system. In response to a signal from the brain, hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream by the endocrine glands, where they travel to their ‘target cells’ and exert their influence by stimulating receptors on the surface of or inside cells. Hormones are produced in large quantities but disappear very quickly. Their effects are slow in comparison with the nervous system, but very powerful.

Question 10

What is the evolutionary theory of behaviour assumption of the biological approach?

Answer 10

The main principle of this theory is that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival and reproduction will be passed on in the genes to future generations

Natural selection occurs because some genetically inherited traits give the possessor certain advantages. The possessor is more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on these genes/traits to future generations. If the individual survives but doesn’t reproduce, the traits don’t get passed onto future generations

Aggression is one behaviour that is thought to be naturally selected. Many animal species defend their territory through aggression towards their own species to protect their territory. This means they will have the resources necessary for survival, mating and care of offspring. This aggressive behaviour is then passed on in the genes to its offspring. Similarly, humans also show signs of being territorial and often resort to aggression to defend what they regard as their territory. It is argued that this aggression has been inherited genetically from our ancestors.

Question 11

What is the deterministic evaluation point of the biological approach?

Answer 11

It is criticised for being deterministic as it sees human behaviour as being controlled by internal, biological causes meaning we have no free will. Retz et al concluded that the 5-HTTLPR gene, which controls serotonin levels is associated with violent behaviour in male criminals. This shows that the violence is a part of the criminal’s biology. This is a weakness because it has implications for the legal system and wider society. One of the rules of law is that offenders are legally and morally responsbile for their actions. If we believe the biological approach, offenders are not morally responsible or to blame as they are controlled by genes

Question 12

What is the reductionist evaluation point of the biological approach?

Answer 12

Accused of being reductionist. It reduces all complex behaviour down to one cause e.g., the role of neurotransmitters in our brain like serotonin. It has said that low levels of serotonin can cause depression. This is a simplistic view of behaviour to think that depression can only be caused by low levels of serotonin. It ignores environmental factors or how faulty thinking could influence our behaviour

Question 13

What is the evidence evaluation point of the biological approach?

Answer 13

Many pieces of supporting evidence. Supporting research comes from twin studies and objective studies using biological equipment such as PET scans. Research has discovered the concordance rates of depression, MZ - 49%, DZ - 17%, siblings - 9%. This is a strength because having supporting research such as this adds validity and credibility to the biological approach particularly the genetic explanation

Question 14

What is the application evaluation point of the biological approach?

Answer 14

Strengths because biological research has led to many treatments being developed to treat psychological disorders. Research into biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development of drug treatments. Medications to treat serious mental illnesses, such as depression and SZ have been developed. Although these drugs are not effective for all patients, they have revolutionised treatment. This is a strength because it means that sufferers are able to manage their condition and live a normal life rather than being in a hospital

Question 15

What is the methods evaluation point of the biological approach?

Answer 15

Scientific lab studies which involve scientific/biological equipment. In order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the biological approach makes use a range of precise and highly scientific methods which are reliable and objective. Raine et al used PET scans to compare brain activity of murderers and normal people. They found differences in areas of the brain such as the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala, regions associated with aggressive behaviour, This is a strength because by emphasising the importance of scientific processes and their reliance on the scientific method giving the biological approach greater credibility and status as a science

Question 16

What are internal mental processes? (Cognitive approach)

Answer 16

Private operations of the mind that mediate between stimulus and response

Question 17

What is a schema? (Cognitive approach)

Answer 17

A mental framework that influence processing which is developed from experiences

Question 18

What is an inference? (Cognitive approach)

Answer 18

Where you draw conclusions about how mental processes operate

Question 19

What is cognitive neuroscience? (Cognitive approach)

Answer 19

The study of biological structures

Question 20

What are the assumptions of the cognitive approach?

Answer 20

Believe it is important to look at internal mental processes to understand behaviour, investigating memory, perception thinking, attention and language.

These mental processes are not observable, so cognitive psychologists must study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside people’s minds. They do this by devising models and then testing and measuring them scientifically

Our mind works like a computer in terms of: input from our senses which it then processes and produces an output such as language or specific behaviours

Question 21

How do the cognitive approach investigate perception?

Answer 21

Interpreting incoming sensory information

Question 22

How do the cognitive approach investigate attention?

Answer 22

Selecting information for further processing

Question 23

How do the cognitive approach investigate memory?

Answer 23

Recall and retain information

Question 24

How do the cognitive approach investigate language?

Answer 24

Thoughts and feelings put into words

Question 25

How do the cognitive approach investigate thinking?

Answer 25

Problem-solving, sorting, combining and modifying information

Question 26

What are the 2 theoretical models? (Cognitive approach)

Answer 26

The information processing approach and the multi-store model

Question 27

What are theoretical models? (Cognitive approach)

Answer 27

A model of something should never be taken as an exact copy of the thing being described, but rather as a representation of it. Cognitive psychologists encourage the use of theoretical models as they support a scientific approach to enquiring and testing. The use of theoretical models means that the components can be tested individually and examined in detail. If the data from these experiments doesn’t fit with the model it can be adjusted

Question 28

How do cognitive psychologists understand internal mental processes?

Answer 28

By using theoretical and computer models

Question 29

What is the difference between theoretical models and computer models?

Answer 29

Theoretical are abstract whereas computer are concrete things.

Question 30

What is the information processing approach? (Cognitive approach - theoretical model)

Answer 30

Suggests information flows throguh the cognitive system in a sequence of stages

Input: comes from the environment via senses and is encoded by the individual
I
V
Transformation: once encoded info can be processed, store and retrieved from memory
I
V
Output: the behavioural response from the individual

Question 31

What is the multi-store model? (Cognitive approach - theoretical model)

Answer 31

In line with the information processing approach the information flows through our memory system in a series of stages. The cognitive approach recognises that the mental processes in these models (attention, rehearsal, retrieval, encoding) cannot be observed directly and so must be studied indirectly in lab settings and then inferences are made about what is happening in the mind. This enables cognitive psychologists to develop theories about how our mental processes work

Question 32

What are computer models? (Cognitive approach)

Answer 32

Compare the mind to a computer by suggesting there are similarities in the way information is processed. These models use the idea of the brain being the hardware and the mental processes and perception are the software. They use the concepts of ‘stores’ to hold the information and the concept of ‘coding’ to turn information into a usable format

Question 33

What is artificial intelligence (Cognitive approach - computer model)

Answer 33

Cognitive psychologists use the computer analogy to simulate human mental abilities in AI, to perform tasks that require decision making. AI is concerned with producing machines that behave intelligently. Expert systems are programmed with a body of knowledge and then sued to deal with real world problems to replace the work of humans. The Dendral programme has been used to help chemists establish the structure of complex molecules

Question 34

What are the assumptions in the cognitive approach?

Answer 34

Theoretical models, computer models, the role of schemas, the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Question 35

What is the role of schemas in the cognitive approach?

Answer 35

Schemas are packages of information, beliefs and expectations in the mind developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming info received by the cognitive systems e.g., if you witness a crime scene your scheme will help you interpret what you have observed and hears. Your schemas that have been acquired through experience help you to respond to the object/situation appropriately. It could also affect what you recall about the situation.

As we get older, our schemas become more detailed and sophisticated. Schemas enable us to process lots of information quickly and this is useful as a sort of mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.

However, schemas may cause errors in out processing of the sensory info that we receive. If we experience a situation or object that we don’t have a schema for we might ignore that info or misinterpret it so that it fits in with our existing schemas

Question 36

What is cognitive neuroscience? (Cognitive approach)

Answer 36

The scientific study of the brain structures, mechanisms and brain processes that are responsible for cognitive thinking. This involves the mapping of brain areas to specific functions

Question 37

What is the emergence of cognitive neuroscience in the cognitive approach?

Answer 37

PET and fMRI scans help psychologists to understand how areas of the brain are linked to different cognitive activities and emotions. The scans show which parts of the brain become active when someone is engaged in a cognitive task

Cognitive neuroscientists also study atypical brains. Brain injuries can be located using scans and patients are then asked to undergo cognitive tasks whilst scanning takes place. If the person with the injured brain has difficulty with the task it is inferred that the damaged part of the brain is responsible for that cognitive function. Cognitive neuroscientists study many different mental processes including brain activity linked to memory, attention and perception. They are also interested in the neuroscience of social cognition, and show abnormalities in these brain regions may be associated with psychological disorders

Question 38

What are the uses of cognitive neuroscience? (Cognitive approach)

Answer 38

• The use of scanning and imaging techniques to locate different types of memory in different areas of the brain leading to treatment for memory problems
• The use of scanning and imaging techniques to study mental processing in patients with depression or OCD or in children with autism or dyslexia
• Use of computer simulations/computational modelling to test theories or hypotheses about mental processes such as attention, memory, problem solving etc

Question 39

What is the deterministic evaluation point of the cognitive approach?

Answer 39

Less deterministic than other approaches and adopts a soft determinism view. It recognises that rather than being completely controlled by the environment (behaviourism) or being controlled by genes (biologically) we can make rational choices about how we behave. The approach gives a certain amount of importance to free will. This is a strength because soft determinism is a middle ground position

Question 40

What is the reductionist evaluation point of the biological approach?

Answer 40

Accused of being reductionist. The approach reduces all complex behaviour down to once cause e.g., faulty thinking and distorted schemes. It believes depression is caused by irrational thought processes. This is a simplistic view of behaviour to think that depression can only be caused by irrational thinking. It ignores environmental impacts or how neurotransmitters may affect our behaviour

Question 41

What is the evidence evaluation point of the biological approach?

Answer 41

There are many pieces of supporting evidence. Much comes from scientific lab studies. Johnson and Scott found in a EWT study that a weapon can less a participant’s ability to identify the person holding it. This may therefore explain why EWT sometimes have poor recall for certain details of violent crimes. This is a strength because having scientific supporting research adds validity and credibility

Question 42

What is the application evaluation point of the biological approach?

Answer 42

It has been applied in real life. Our understanding of internal mental processes provided by this approach has led to the development of CBT which helps our understanding of fault thought processes. This is a strength because cognitive biased therapies have led to the successful treatment of people suffering from depression where faulty thinking is identified and altered.

Question 43

What is the methods evaluation point of the biological approach?

Answer 43

Use of lab experiments in highly controlled settings which allows for reliable and objective data and allowed researchers to infer which cognitive processes are at work. The emergence of neuroscience has also enable the biological and cognitive approach to come together. This means that the study of the mind has established more of a credibility scientific basis since Wundt’s early attempts at introspection. This is a strength because it means that the study of the mind has established a credible and scientific basis

Question 44

What are the 3 assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 44

1. We are born a blank slate: all behaviour is learned and determined by interactions and experiences in our environment, therefore there is no biological influence on our behaviour
2. It rejects the vagueness of introspection. Only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically and it’s only these behaviour that should be studied. Thought processes cannot be observed and so are difficult to test
3. They suggest that the basic process of learning is the same for all species. It is therefore valid to study how animals learn and apply the same principles of learning to humans

Question 45

Who came up with classical conditioning? (Behaviourist approach)

Answer 45

Pavlov

Question 46

What did Pavlov investigate? (Behaviourist approach)

Answer 46

Classical conditioning - Behaviourists regard all behaviour as a response to a stimulus and believe that we are born with only a handful of innate responses that do not need to be learned. Most responses are learned through interacting with the environment. Classical conditioning is learning by association. They key idea is that learning occurs when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired together (NS and UCS). An NS doesn’t cause a response. A UCS causes a natural response. After repeated pairings the NS alone will cause a reaction

Question 47

What is the process of classical conditioning? (Behaviourist approach)

Answer 47

UCS –> UCR
UCS + NS –> UCR
CS –> CR

Question 48

What other things did Pavlov find about classical conditioning? (Behaviourist approach)

Answer 48

Timing, stimulus generalisation and extinction

Question 49

What did Pavlov find about timing? (Behaviourist approach)

Answer 49

Pavlov found that the association only occurs if the unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus are presented at the same time, or around the same time .If the time between presentations is too great, there will be no association

Question 50

What did Pavlov find about stimulus generalisation? (Behaviourist approach)

Answer 50

Discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they would also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the original CS

Question 51

What did Pavlov find about extinction? (Behaviourist approach)

Answer 51

In Pavlov’s dogs if the bell (CS) is repeatedly sounded without the food, salivation (CR) slowly disappears. The behaviour is extinguished

Question 52

Who investigated operant conditioning? (Behaviourist approach)

Answer 52

Skinner

Question 53

What is operant conditioning? (Behaviourist approach)

Answer 53

Skinner recognises that learning can occur through the consequence of behaviour. Done through positive and negative reinforcemenet and punishment

Question 54

What is positive reinforcement? (Behaviourist approach - operant)

Answer 54

If a reward is given, the behaviour is likely to be repeated

Question 55

What is punishment? (Behaviourist approach -operant)

Answer 55

Occurs after a behaviour which reduces the chance that the behaviour will be repeated

Question 56

What is negative reinforcement? (Behaviourist approach - operant)

Answer 56

If something unpleasant stops when we perform a desired behaviour, then the behaviour is more likely to be repeated

Question 57

What is shaping? (Behaviourist approach - operant)

Answer 57

This is a route to a target behaviour. Instead of only reinforcing the target behaviour, behaviours which lead to the target population are rewarded

Question 58

What is the deterministic evaluation point of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 58

Accused of being deterministic. It sees all behaviour as being controlled by past experiences that have been conditioned. Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. He said that any sense of free will is an illusion and our past conditioning controls our behaviour. If our past experiences control our behaviour, then it means we cannot choose how to behave. If someone behaves in an immoral way, the approach seems to suggest it is not their fault

Question 59

What is the reductionist evaluation point of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 59

Accused of being reductionist as it reduces all complex behaviour down to one cause e.g., the role of environment and the principles of operant and classical conditioning. This is a simplistic view of behaviour to think we only learn through positive or negative reinforcement. The approach ignores the other contributions such as the role of cognitive processes of neurochemistry

Question 60

What is the evidence evaluation point of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 60

Many pieces of supporting evidence, much of it coming from scientific lab studies. Pavlov’s dogs supports the classical conditioning theory and Skinner’s box supports operant conditioning. This is a strength because it adds validity and credibility and evidence is needed to support a theory

Question 61

What is the application evaluation point of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 61

Principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real-world behaviours and problems. Operant conditioning is the basis of token economies that have been successfully used in institutions. Classical conditioning has led to the development of treatments for the reduction of anxiety associated with phobias. Systematic desensitisation is a therapy based on classical conditioning which works by eliminating the learned anxious response (CR) associated with the feared object or situation (CS) and replacing it with relaxation. This is a strength because token economies have been very successful in correcting prisoner’s behaviour. Systematic desensitisation has a very high success rate of treating phobic patients

Question 62

What is the methods evaluation point of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 62

Much of supporting research comes from highly controlled scientific animal lab experiments. Skinner and Pavlov used scientific lab experiments as it allowed them to eliminate any extraneous variables to establish a cause and effect relationship between reinforcement (IV) and the learning of a behaviour (DV). This is a strength because by using scientific methods, behaviourism has been very influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline, giving psychology greater credibility and status

Question 63

What are the economic implications of the cognitive approach?

Answer 63

The cognitive approach has been used to explain how much of the dysfunctional behaviour shown by people can be traced back to fault thinking processes. This is a strength as it has led to successful treatment of people suffering from illnesses such as depression and OCD by using cognitive-based therapy. In 2013, 70 million sick days were taken due to mental health issues

Question 64

What are the assumptions of the social learning theory?

Answer 64

1. Bandura agreed with the behaviourists that much of our behaviour is learned from experience and our environment. He therefore does not regard genetics as an influence on our behaviour. However, his SLT proposed a different way to explain how people learn; through observing other people and the reinforcement or punishment that other people receive.
2. SLT believes that learning occurs directly through classical and operant conditioning but also indirectly through vicarious reinforcement. Bandura believed unlike behaviourists that meditational processes that lie between stimulus and response are essential for learning to take place. These processes allow us to think about what we are going to do before we do it. For this reason, they only study human learning rather than animal
3. Social learning theorists believe in using scientific, lab-based experiments to study behaviour in an objective way

Question 65

What does the SLT approach say about learning behaviour?

Answer 65

They say that people especially children learn by observing what other people say and do. They are more likely to observe and imitate some people rather than everyone, these people are called role models

Question 66

How does social learning occur?

Answer 66

Someone must first carry out the behaviour or attitude to be learning this is called modelling. The individual that performs this role is referred to as a model. There are many different types of models: a live model might be a parent or teacher or member of a peer group. A symbolic model would be somebody portrayed in the media e.g., an actress. These models provide examples of behaviour that can be observed by the individual and later reproduced by imitating them

Question 67

What is identification?

Answer 67

Refers to the extent to which an individual relates to a model and wants to be like them. It is more likely to happen if the individual feels that they are similar e.g., same sex. In order to identify with a model, the observer must feel that they would be likely to experience the same outcomes in that situation. If an individual can identify with a model this means they are more likely to imitate their behaviour

Question 68

How does a child choose their role model?

Answer 68

Much of what a child learns is through imitation of attitudes and behaviours that are modelled by people around us e.g., parents. Research has shown that when a model is provided, whole patterns can be quickly acquired. Factors which determine if a behaviour is imitated:
- The characteristics of the model
- The observer’s ability to perform that behaviour
- The consequences of the behaviour

Question 69

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 69

Reinforcement that is not directly experienced but that occurs through observing someone else being reinforced.
An individual who observes a model being rewarded for a certain behaviour is more likely to imitate that behaviour as they want the same reward. This is the idea that individuals do not need to experience rewards or punishments directly in order to learn. Instead, they can observe the consequences experienced by a model and then make judgments as to the likelihood of experiencing these outcomes themselves. When the opportunity to perform the earnt behaviour occurs the behaviour will be modelled. Similarly, if the individual observes a behaviour being punished it makes it less likely that the behaviour will be imitated.

Question 70

What are the 4 mediational processes?

Answer 70

Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation

Question 71

What are mediational processes?

Answer 71

Processes that lie between the stimulus and the response and allow us to be able to think about what we are going to do before we do it

Question 72

What is attention? (SLT - mediational process)

Answer 72

In order to learn a behaviour, we must first notice someone (the model) in their environment and pay attention to them and what they are doing

Question 73

What is retention? (SLT - mediational process)

Answer 73

The individual must remember what they have observed

Question 74

What is reproduction? (SLT - mediational process)

Answer 74

the observer must know they have the ability to perform the behaviour

Question 75

What is motivation? (SLT - mediational process)

Answer 75

The individual must have a reason to demonstrate the behaviour that they have observed. Imitation is more likely if the person expects to be reinforced

Question 76

What is the deterministic evaluation point of the SLT approach?

Answer 76

Less deterministic than behaviourist. Suggests a person has cognitive mental processes which allows them to choose whether to imitate. Strength because it says our behaviour is not entirely determined and we have an amount of free will

Question 77

What is the reductionist evaluation point of the SLT approach?

Answer 77

Reductionist because it reduces all complex behaviour down to one cause e.g., role of our models. Believes all behaviour is observed and imitated which is a simplistic view of behaviour to think we only learn through meditational processes. Ignores contributions such as role of cognitive processes/neurochemistry

Question 78

What is the evidence evaluation point of the SLT approach?

Answer 78

Supporting evidence from lab studies e.g., Bandura. Supporting research is good as it adds validity and credibility to SLT

Question 79

What is the application evaluation point of the SLT approach?

Answer 79

Have increased our understanding of why humans behave in a pro or anti social way/ Can be used to explain how children develop aggressive behaviour or gender stereotypical behaviour. Strength to know how children learn as parents may use the theory to ensure they do not get exposed to negative behaviours. Can attempt to not expose them to negative role models in the media ensuring only pro social behaviour is modelled at home

Question 80

What is the methods evaluation point of the SLT approach?

Answer 80

Scientific lab studies emphasising the importance of scientific processes giving psych greater credibility and status as a science e.g., Bandura. Lab studies are highly controlled, eliminating extraneous variables which allow us to establish cause and effect confidently

Question 81

What was Bandura’s aim? (SLT)

Answer 81

conducted an experiment with young children (3-8 from USA) to demonstrate observational or imitative learning.

Question 82

What was Bandura’s method (SLT)

Answer 82

Group A - children were put into a room, one at a time, with an adult who behaved in an aggressive way towards a bobo doll. The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it.
Group B - One at a time, children were put into a room where an adult behaved in a subdued non aggressive way toward the doll. Each child was then put into a playroom which contained toys including a bobo doll and a hammer. The researchers recorded the number of aggressive behaviours each child made toward the doll.

Question 83

What were Bandura’s results? (SLT)

Answer 83

More aggressive acts were recorded for the children who had observed an adult behave aggressively than children who had not. Boys were generally more aggressive than girls.

Question 84

What was Bandura’s conclusion? (SLT)

Answer 84

Exposure to a model behaving aggressively results in observational learning and aggressive behaviour.

Question 85

What are the positive evaluation points of Bandura’s study?

Answer 85

High control of variables: Lab studies have tight control over all the variables, and they eliminate extraneous variables. In Bandura’s study all variables were kept the same e.g., seeing the same adult hit the doll. This is a strength because it means that a cause and effect relationship between the IV (behaviour of the role model) and the DV (behaviour of the children) can be established.

Standardised procedure: Lab studies adopt a standardised procedure and so can be replicated. Bandura’s study was standardised which meant that Bandura could repeat the procedure exactly again and again to test the impact of observation on the imitation of aggressive behaviour. This is a strength because it is possible to check if the findings are reliable (consistent).

Question 86

What are the negative evaluation points of Bandura’s study?

Answer 86

Lack of generalisation: Lab experiments are carried out in artificial settings with artificial scenarios. In Bandura’s study it isn’t an everyday situation that a child sees an adult being aggressive with an inflatable doll. This is a weakness because it is questionable whether we can apply the findings to real life/everyday behaviour; it might not represent how children observe and imitate aggression in everyday life. Therefore, it can be said that the studies lack ecological validity.

Demand characteristics: When using human participants there may be a possibility that they work out the aim of the study. In Bandura’s study the children were 3-8 years old, there is a possibility that the older children may have worked out the aim of the study and shown either please you/screw your behaviour. This is a weakness because if this happens, they may attempt to ‘please’ the experimenter and demonstrate behaviour they think the experimenter wants, or they may go the opposite and try to demonstrate behaviour that is the opposite of what the experimenter wants. In reality the experimenter doesn’t want either of these behaviours and would prefer if P’s did not try to work out the aim at all. Demand characteristics reduce the internal validity of the research.

Question 87

What are the economic implications of SLT?

Answer 87

The media is often seen as a source of criminal behaviour because people imitate antisocial acts they have witnessed on screen or elsewhere. Placing restrictions or bans on what is viewed is one way of trying to reduce ‘copy-cat’ crimes. However, with the expansion of the internet, this is becoming more difficult.
There is a lot of evidence that criminals ‘start young’. On this basis, there are early intervention programmes in place which try to discourage criminal behaviour. For example, these can be delivered through the education system, youth services or social services. The psychology behind early intervention is to stop children learning bad behaviour and instead, learning appropriate and co-operative behaviour is reinforced.

Question 88

What are the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 88

1. Id, ego and superego
2. Preconscious, unconscious and conscious

Question 89

What did Freud state about the role of the unconscious mind?

Answer 89

Mind isn’t accessible through conscious thought (iceberg). Most of our everyday behaviours are the product of the unconscious mind which reveals itself by slips of the tongue and in neurotic mental health symptoms. Mind actively prevents traumatic memories from reaching conscious awareness as they may cause anxiety. Mind uses defence mechanisms to prevent

Question 90

What is the conscious mind? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 90

Small amount of mental activity we know about, logical
e.g., thoughts, perceptions

Question 91

What is the preconscious? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 91

Things we could be aware of if we wanted to or tired
e.g., memories, stored knowledge

Question 92

What is the unconscious? (Psychodynamic

Answer 92

Unaware of, cannot be directly accessed, is irrational and ruled by pleasure-seeking impulses, expresses itself indirectly through development of mental illnesses and in dreams
e.g., fears, unacceptable sexual desires, violent motives, immoral urges, trauma

Question 93

What is the structure of the personality according to Freud?

Answer 93

Made up of the id, ego and superego

Question 94

What is the id?

Answer 94

Pleasure principle: operates in unconscious mind, contains the libido. Demands immediate gratification e.g., hunger. Present at birth and throughout life is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification

Question 95

What is the ego?

Answer 95

Reality principle: balances desires of id and moralistic demands of superego. Develops at 2 and focuses to reduce conflict between id and superego by employing defence mechanisms

Question 96

What is the superego?

Answer 96

Morality principle: formed at 5 and is our sense of what is right and wrong, represents moral standards of same sex parent and punishes ego for anything we do wrong through feeling guilt, develops in phallic stage

Question 97

What are defence mechanisms? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 97

Ego uses to reduce conflict between id and superego. It is a mental process initiated unconsciously to avoid experiencing conflict or anxiety

Question 98

What are the 3 defence mechanisms? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 98

Repression, denial and displacement

Question 99

What is repression (Psychodynamic)

Answer 99

Stops unacceptable thoughts and impulses. These repressed thoughts and impulses continue to influence behaviours without the individual being aware of the reasons behind their behaviour e.g., child may have trouble forming relationships in later life, but no recollection of being abused as a child by a parent

Question 100

What is denial? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 100

Refuses to accept reality and avoids having to deal with any painful feelings that might be associated with that event. The individual acts as if the painful or stressful life event hasn’t happened

Question 101

What is displacement? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 101

Involves redirecting thoughts or feelings in situations where the person feels unable to express them at the person they should be directing them towards.

Question 102

What are psychosexual stages? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 102

Personality development occurs through a series of 5 stages. This is the most important driving force in development and is needed to express sexual energy. Each stages is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve to progress. If not resolved a child gets fixated at a stage and conflicts occur in adult life

Question 103

How do you remember the psychosexual stages? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 103

Old Age Pensioners Love Gin

Question 104

What is the Oral stage? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 104

0-2 years
Focus of pleasure is the mouth, mother’s breast is object of desire
If unresolved:
Oral receptive (too much pleasure) - smoking, nail biting, passive and gullible
Oral aggressive (too little pleasure) - sarcastic sense of humour, critical of others

Question 105

What is the Anal stage? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 105

2-3 years
Focus of pleasure is the anus. Children gain pleasure from holding onto and expelling their faeces
If unresolved:
Anal retentive (strict potty training) - perfectionist, obsessive, neat and stingy
Anal exclusive (lenient potty training) - thoughtless, messy, disorganised, overly generous

Question 106

What is the Phallic stage? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 106

3-5 years
Focus of pleasure is genital area. Child experiences the Oedipus or Electra complex
If unresolved:
Phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless, possible homosexual

Question 107

What is the Latency stage? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 107

6-12 years
The conflicts and issues of the previous stages are repressed with the consequence that children are unable to remember much of their early years

Question 108

What is the Genital stage? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 108

12+
Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
If unresolved:
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

Question 109

What is the Oedipus complex? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 109

Bots experience intense sexual feelings for his mother. Sees his father as competition for the love of his mother. Therefore wants dad to leave so that mum can focus on him.
Boy is worried that dad will castrate him if he finds out he has feelings for his mum (castration anxiety)
To deal with this, boy befriends dad by engaging in activities that his dad pursues so that his dad sees the son as an ally (identification)
This reduces the boy’s anxiety, and the complex is resolve upon resolution, boy develops superego and gender identity from dad

Question 110

What is the Electra complex? (Psychodynamic)

Answer 110

Girl has sexual desires for her father. She sees her other as a love rival for the love of her father. Girls realise that they do not have a penis. They think mum has removed it and so at 3 develop penis envy.
When that desire is not fulfilled it is substituted through the desire to have a baby. The girl identifies with the mother and takes on her other’s principles. There is then resolution of the Electra complex and the girl develops her superego and gender identity. A girl’s identification is not as strong as they do not develop castration anxiety, therefore have a weaker superego than males

Question 111

What is the deterministic evaluation point of the Psychodynamic approach?

Answer 111

Psychic determinism, Freud thought even something as apparently random as a slip of the tongue is driven by unconscious forces. Freud would suggest this is determined by unconscious forces with deep symbolic meaning. This implies that all behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts that are rooted in childhood, any free will we think we may have is an illusion

Question 112

What is the reductionist evaluation point of the Psychodynamic approach?

Answer 112

Takes an interactionist approach of both nature and nurture therefore it isn’t considered reductionist. Explains human behaviour as a result of the interaction between nature and nurture. Freud said we must all pass through fixed developmental stages (nature) and that the environment we experience (Nurture) as we pass through these stages affects the outcomes. Our innate drives and libido force us through psychosexual stages. A child who is fixated in the oral aggressive stage because of a lack of oral stimulation will become envious and pessimistic, whereas a child who is fixated in the oral receptive stage through too much stimulation will be trusting and optimistic. So, the environmental conditions interact with the innate drive and lead to the uniqueness of the personality. This is a strength as it helps to explain why personality can be so varied and how individual experiences need to be understood in order to explain a person’s behaviour. This recognises the complexity of human behaviour in a way that some other approaches do not e.g., biological focuses only on innate characteristics.

Question 113

What is the evidence evaluation point of the Psychodynamic approach?

Answer 113

Supporting research from Freud’s unscientific research methods such as case studies and clinical interviews e.g., Little Hans was battling with an unresolved Oedipus complex. Additionally, data gained from case studies and clinical interviews provide lots of rich, qualitative data as they interpret the meaning of an experience to the individual concerned.

Question 114

What is the application evaluation point of the Psychodynamic approach?

Answer 114

Several effective therapies. Psychoanalysis was developed by Freud to help patients with neurotic symptoms overcome their problems and move on with their lives. Psychoanalysis enables a link to be made between physical symptoms and a psychological state of mind. Anna O had her paralysis cured after Freud psychoanalysed her. This is a strength because practical therapies give credibility to theory and in Freud’s case his approach showed the importance of childhood experiences in adult mental illnesses. Freud showed that childhood trauma and problems need to be understood in order to help some patients recover. However, psychoanalysis isn’t appropriate for people with schizophrenia. Isn’t an appropriate explanation for all behaviours. Likely to exacerbate symptoms rather than relieve them.

Question 115

What is the methods evaluation point of the Psychodynamic approach?

Answer 115

Based on case studies and clinical interview data. Freud’s theory was based on the intensive study of single individuals who were often in therapy. For example, Little Hans. However, this is a weakness because although Freud’s observations were detailed and carefully recorded, critics have suggested that it is not possible to make such universal claims about human nature based on studies of such a small number of individuals who were psychologically abnormal. Additionally, Freud’s interpretations were highly subjective and it is highly unlikely that in the case of Little Hans that any other researcher would have drawn the same conclusions.

Question 116

What are the 3 assumptions of the humanistic approach?

Answer 116

Idiographic, free will and subjective

Question 117

What does idiographic mean in the humanistic approach?

Answer 117

This person-centred approach recognises that how we perceive and understand the world around us is unique to each one of us, and only by recognising this can we understand the person. It assumes therefore, that an idiographic approach to psychology is required seeing the individual and their experiences as unique

Question 118

What does the humanistic approach say about free will?

Answer 118

Assumes we have free-will and conscious control over out lives and futures if we choose to exercise it. We are free and active agents able to make significant personal choices within these constraints. This is a very different position to the biological and behaviourist approaches. We are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development so take a person-centred approach

Question 119

What does the humanistic approach say about subjectivity?

Answer 119

Humanistic psychologists reject the objective scientific methods which view humans as objects. They seek to understand the subjective experiences that make us unique. Self-report methods such as unstructured interviews are preferred. Methods that allow us to explain how we feel and perceive our experiences in the world from out own POV, not the researchers

Question 120

What is self-actualisation? (Humanistic)

Answer 120

We all have an innate need to be the best we possible can. Once all deficiency needs are met, we can focus on growth needs and fulfil our potential. Maslow believed that the fulfilled individual is able to continue to grow, reach satisfaction and become goal orientated

Question 121

What is the order of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs? (Humanistic)

Answer 121

Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem and self-actualisation

Question 122

What is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs? (Humanistic)

Answer 122

Self-actualisation is a growth need. Ignoring the needs lower down can be difficult because Maslow believe their pull was strong. If we are able to satisfy our lower deficiency needs, we can grow towards the top.

Question 123

What is Roger’s idea of the self and congruence? (Humanistic)

Answer 123

Our self is how we perceive ourselves as individuals/ Rogers say we have an ideal self representing how we would like to be. To be fulfilled and reach our potential the ideal self and self-concept should be as similar to each other as possible (congruence). If the two selves are incongruent, then personal growth is not possible because of negative feelings caused by thinking that who we actually are is not how we want to be.
Some have a distorted view of their self-image because they are unable to see the incongruence between their idea and actual selves. These individuals will not reach fulfilment because they are in denial of reality (defence mechanism) that prevents them from recognising the negative parts of their lives

Question 124

What are Roger’s conditions of worth? (Humanistic)

Answer 124

We might not self-actualise due to conditions of worth. He says that significant others in our lives can help or hinder personal growth. Love and acceptance can either be given unconditionally or conditionally

Question 125

What is unconditional positive regard? (Humanistic)

Answer 125

Others love and accept us for who we are without judgement and without placing conditions on us to be what they want us to be

Question 126

What is conditional positive regard? (Humanistic)

Answer 126

When love and acceptance comes at a price where we cannot be ourselves or the acceptance is withdrawn/ In this case individuals develop conditions of worth and only feel a sense of self-acceptance if they meet the expectations of the significant others

Question 127

What is Roger’s influence on counselling psychology? (Humanistic)

Answer 127

He developed Client-centred therapy.
Many emotional problems adults face such as low self-esteem stem from the gap between their actual and ideal self. This is often established in childhood as a result of the conditional positive regard from parents. The therapy is non-directive meaning therapists don’t tell the clients what the need to do to solve their problems but assumes that clients know themselves best. Aims is for client to close gap on actual and ideal self and gain congruence to steer towards self-actualisation

Question 128

What does Roger’s client-centred therapy involve? (Humanistic)

Answer 128

Providing unconditional positive regard the client didn’t get as a child. The therapist provides:
1. Genuineness - being honest with the client
2. Empathy - seeing the world from the client’s viewpoint
3. Unconditional positive regard - interacting without judgement and placing no demands on the client

Question 129

Why has Roger’s client-centred therapy been praised? (Humanistic)

Answer 129

Forward looking, positive and effective approach as it deals with current problems without focusing on the past. It has transformed psychotherapy and introduced the variety of counselling techniques that can be used in lots of settings. Much like psychoanalysis it is best applied to the treatment of mild psychological conditions such as anxiety

Question 130

What is the deterministic evaluation point of the Humanistic approach?

Answer 130

Humanistic psychologist’s view that humans are essentially free and will seek to do good in order to achieve their potential is one that gives us a reason to think that the world can be a better place. Freud’s approach would have us believe we are doomed to despair and destruction whereas humanistic psychology believes we have individual freedom and are in control of our lives. This is a strength because it offers a more optimistic and refreshing alternative to the other more deterministic approaches. However, the approach contradicts itself. Rogers says we have an innate tendency to achieve our full potential. If this is innate we have no choice. Similarly, Maslow’s hierarchy insists that deficiency needs must be met before growth needs, which again suggests our behaviour is determined by forces we cannot change. And within humanistic counselling there is the acceptance that we are controlled by social forces and by relationships with significant others.

Question 131

What is the reductionist evaluation point of the Humanistic approach?

Answer 131

Reject reductionism and any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components, advocate holism. For example, humanistic psychologists support the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person. This is a strength because this approach therefore may have more validity as it considers meaningful human behaviour in real life contexts.
However, it could also be argued that the humanistic approach presents a rather narrow view of human behaviour by focusing on two main innate qualities - our free will and our basic goodness. Critics argue that there are other elements to human behaviour that could be seen as equally evident e.g., our capacity for destructive behaviour. The idea that all our problems stem from blocked self-actualisation and that by ‘un-blocking’ this innate capacity for growth we can be free again is unrealistic. By ignoring situational factors and environmental factors (e.g., if I am unemployed and have no money it is difficult to reach my potential) the approach is guilty of reductionism.

Question 132

What is the evidence evaluation point of the Humanistic approach?

Answer 132

Van Houtte and Jarvis had a sample of 130 pupils from the USA, they were put into two groups either pet owner or non-pet owner. The results showed that self-esteem was higher in pet owners compared to non-pet owners. For 11 year olds pets were found to positively influence self-concept. Pet owners reported higher autonomy across all age ranges. This is a strength because humanistic psychology emphasises the importance of self-esteem and how this can have an impact on our mental health. This study demonstrates that if someone owns a pet then this could have an increase on their self-esteem.
However, it is very challenging to provide evidence that supports the humanistic approach as a lot of ‘supporting’ evidence has been the self-reported studies like Van Houtte and Jarvis. The issues is that when someone has been asked to self-report their feelings they could be inaccurate, they may lie and as a result this would dilute the validity of the supporting evidence for the humanistic approach.

Question 133

What is the application evaluation point of the Humanistic approach?

Answer 133

Relatively little real-world application. This may be in part due to humanistic psychology lacking a sound evidence base and also due to the fact that the approach has described a loose set of rather abstract concepts. Concepts such as ‘self-actualisation’ and ‘congruence and are too vague to understand’. This is a weakness as it may mean the approach is not adopted into mainstream psychology.
However, Rogers’ theory has revolutionised counselling techniques through client centred therapy which has been applied in individual and group settings. The aim of therapy is to allow the person to find their true self and get back on the path to self-actualisation. For many clients this has led to happiness and fulfilment.

Question 134

What is the method evaluation point of the Humanistic approach?

Answer 134

The humanistic approach has been based on questionnaire and Q-sort data. Concepts such as self-actualisation would be problematic to assess under experimental conditions. However, Rogers did attempt to introduce more rigour into his work by developing the Q-sort. This is a strength because it is an objective measure of progress to be used in therapy.