Research Methods - Paper 2 Flashcards
What is an aim?
Aim - A statement of what the researchers intend to find out in a research study
What is a hypothesis?
A testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables
Tell me an aim and a hypothesis for this scenario: A researcher wants to measure athletes’ motivation levels when having a training partner
Aim: To investigate whether an athletes’ motivation levels increase or decrease when having a training partner
Hypothesis: An athlete’s motivation levels will increase when having a training partner compared to when not having a training partner
What is a non directional hypothesis and when do you use it?
- Non directional hypothesis - states there is a difference between two conditions but does not state the direction
- only use when there is no prior evidence to suggest that there will be a positive or negative effect
What is a directional hypothesis?
States the expected direction of the results
What is a null hypothesis
A prediction of what will happen, which states there will be no relationship or difference that’s shown, it’s just down to chance
E.g. there will be no difference between marks on a psychology test in students that revise with the TV on and students who revise with the TV off
What is the dependent variable?
The factor you are measuring in the experiment
What is the independent variable?
The variable you change to investigate the effect upon the dependent variable
What is the control variable
The variable you keep the same throughout the experiment
What is Operationalising variables?
A variable is operationalised when it has been turned in to something that can be measured.
E.g. the variable could be problem solving ability
the operationalised variable could be time it takes to solve a puzzle
What are extraneous variables?
Any other variables which is not the IV that affects the DV and does not vary systematically with the IV, they’re nuisance variables
E.g. temperature, lighting of the room, age
THEY DO NOT CONFOUND THE RESULTS BUT JUST MAKE THEM HARDER TO DETECT
What are confounding variables?
Also described as any other variable other than the IV which has an effect on the DV but they do VARY SYSTEMATICALLY with the IV
E.g. In Australia, home heating costs decrease in December and January. One conclusion based on correlational evidence may be on average Australians prefer cold homes. In this example, season is again the confound. It is summer in December in the Southern Hemisphere.
What are demand characteristics?
When the participant changes their behaviour to match what they think the researcher wants
What are investigator effects?
The experimenter unconsciously conveys to participants how they should behave
What are the two types of Data?
quantitative and qualitative
What is quantitative data?
Data in the form of numbers
E.g. using a stopwatch, tally, descriptive statistics (averages and ranges)
What is qualitative data?
Data in the form of words
When do you use quantitative data?
experimental and observational research
When do you use qualitative data?
case studies, open-question interviews and questionnaires
What are the advantages of quantitative data?
2 points
- less biased - increased scientific credibility
- easily summarised and displayed on charts and graphs
What are the disadvantages of quantitative data?
2 points
- lacks depth and detail
- only focused on individual behaviours and what can be mathematically measured
What are the advantages of qualititative data?
2 points
- more depth and detail
- participants don’t have limited responses - higher validity
What are the disadvantages of qualititative data?
2 points
- researcher can be open to interpretation and potentially biased
- challenging to summarise
what is primary data?
The researcher is responsible for generating the data. common ways to collect primary data are: interviews, experiments, questionnaires, case studies
what is secondary data?
when researchers use information previously collected by a third hand party
advantages of primary data?
1 point
- increased validity as the researcher has full control
disadvantages of primary data?
2 points
- time consuming
- potentially expensive
advantages of secondary data?
1 point
- already exists and if often analysed - reduces time and potential cost
disadvantages of secondary data?
2 points
- decreased validity as data may not be appropriate to answer the researcher’s question
- researcher has no role so the data could be biased
what are the four types of experiments?
- field
- natural
- quasi
- laboratory
what is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a highly controlled environment. The IV is manipulated to see the impact on the DV
strengths of laboratory experiment?
3 points
- High degree of control - experimenters control all variables, the IV has been precisely replicated, leading to greater accuracy.
- Replication - researchers can repeat experiments and check results.
- High internal validity meaning observed change in DV is due to change in IV
limitations of laboratory experiment?
3 points
- Low ecological validity- high degree of control makes the situation artificial, unlike real life.
- tasks conducted in lab studies lack mundane realism (don’t reflect tasks in the real world) lowering external validity
- participants know they are in a study, they may change their behaviour due to demand characteristics
what is a field experiment?
An experiment conducted in a more natural environment, in which the researcher manipulates something (I.V.) to see the effect of this on something else (D.V.).
strengths of a field experiment?
3 points
- Naturalistic - so more natural behaviours hence high ecological validity.
- tasks are more likely to have mundane realism - closer to the types of activities the participants usually carries out
- often participants won’t know they’re in an experiment so they won’t show demand characteristics
limitations of a field experiment?
2 points
- Lack of control over extraneous variables, could be influencing the measurement of the DV
- if participants are unaware they are being studied this raises ethical issues (lack of informed consent).
what is a natural experiment?
Natural experiments are studies where the experimenter cannot manipulate the IV, so the DV is simply measured and judged as the effect of an IV.
strengths of a natural experiment?
2 points
- allow research in in areas that couldn’t happen in controlled experimentation, either due to ethical or cost reasons
- high external validity -> example of real behaviour in the real life world
limitations of a natural experiment?
3 points
- Very difficult to randomise participants into groups so confounding & extraneous variables become a problem, reducing internal validity
- can’t manipulate the IV so it could be difficult to establish cause and effect
- often rare events so can’t be replicated
what is a quasi experiment
The researcher examines the effect of the naturally occurring IV (i.e. gender, age) on the dependent variable
strengths of a quasi experiment?
1 point
- allow for comparisons between types of people e.g., gender, personality, people with or without disabilities
limitations of a quasi experiment?
3 points
- can only be used where conditions vary naturally
- participants may be aware they are being studied, reducing internal validity
- the DV could be an artificial task, reducing ecological validity
what is randomisation?
researchers can randomly generate aspects of the study to control for extraneous variables and investigator effects
what is standardisation
Standardisation describes using the exact same procedures for all participants involved in order to repeat the study.
what is random sampling?
This is when all members of the population have the same equal chances of being the one that is selected.
strengths of random sampling?
1 point
- no researcher bias as the researcher can’t pick participants
limitations of random sampling?
2 points
- it can be time consuming
- It can be impractical to use a completely random technique
what is opportunity sampling?
Participants who are both accessible and willing to take part are targeted
strengths of opportunity sampling?
1 point
- easiest and inexpensive
limitations of opportunity sampling?
2 points
- Not representative of the whole population
- Researcher bias is presented as they control who they want to select.
what is volunteer sampling?
the sample consists of people who have volunteered to be in the study.
strengths of volunteer sampling?
2 points
- more representative - gives access to variety of participants
- Quick access to willing participants
limitations of volunteer sampling?
1 point
- Volunteer bias- the study may attract a particular profile of a person. This means generalisability is then affected.
what is systematic sampling?
every nth person is chosen from a list of the target population
strengths of systematic sampling?
1 point
- unbiased method - participants are selected through an objective system
limitations of systematic Sampling?
1 point
- risk of bias e.g. every 4th person could be male
what is stratified sampling?
the characteristics of participants within the sample are in the same proportion as found within the target population
strengths of stratified sampling?
2 point
- sample is representative of the target population
- No researcher bias - the selection within each stratum is done randomly.
limitations of stratified sampling?
2 point
- Time consuming to identify strata and contact people from each.
- researchers will have to identify key characteristics or it will be biased
what are independent groups?
when participants are placed in separate groups and take part in one condition of the IV
what are the strengths of independent groups?
2 points
- There are no order effects
- Participants are less likely to guess the aims of the study (demand characteristics are eliminated)
what are the limitations of independent groups?
2 points
- You need more participants than other designs to gather the same amount of data.
- There is a risk of participant variables (individual differences between participants) affecting the results between conditions
what are repeated measures?
The same participants take part in all conditions of the IV.
what are the strengths of repeated measures?
2 points
- Eliminates participant variables
- Fewer participants needed, so not as time consuming
what are the limitations of repeated measures?
1 point
- Order effects presented e.g. practice effects, boredom effects, fatigue
what is the solution for independent group design?
Random allocation solves participant variables.This is as it ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition of the IV as another.
what is the solution for repeated measures?
The participant sample is divided in half, with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order.
E.g., the first 10 participants would complete condition A followed by condition B, and the remaining 10 participants would complete condition B and then A. Any order effects should be balanced out by this technique.
what are matched pairs?
Where participants take part in only one experimental condition, but they are recruited specifically to be similar in relevant characteristics (e.g. intelligence, gender, age) to ‘matched’ participants in the other condition(s).
strengths of matched pairs?
2 points
- No order effects as participants only take part in one condition
- reduced participant variables
limitations of matched pairs?
3 points
- Time consuming and expensive to match participants.
- A large pool of potential participants is needed which can be hard to get.
- may be some participant variables between conditions that could influence the DV
what is a pilot study?
A pilot study is a small-scale version of an investigation which is done before the real investigation is undertaken.
what is naturalistic observation?
when behaviour is studied in a natural setting where everything has benn left as it is normally
strengths of naturalistic observation?
2 points
- High ecological validity as the researcher records naturally occurring behaviour
- High external validity as done in a natural environment
limitation of naturalistic observation?
3 points
- Low ecological validity if participants become aware that the are being watched.
- Replication can be difficult.
- Uncontrolled confounding and extraneous variables are presented.
what is controlled observation?
Watching and recording behaviour in a structured environment e.g. lab setting.
strengths of controlled observation?
3 points
- Researcher is able to focus on a particular aspect of behaviour.
- There is more control over extraneous and confounding variables
- Easy replication
limitations of controlled observation?
3 points
- More likely to be observing
unnatural behaviour as takes place in an unnatural environment. - Low mundane realism so low ecological validity.
- Demand characteristics presented.
what are covert observations?
the participants are unaware that their behaviour is being watched and recorded.
strengths of covert observations?
2 points
- Natural behaviour recorded hence high internal validity of results.
- Investigator effects are unlikely meaning that participants’ behaviour will be genuine
limitations of covert observations?
1 point
- Ethical issues presented as no informed consent given. Invasion of privacy
what is overt observations?
participants are watched and their behaviour is recorded with them knowing they are being watched.
strengths of overt observations?
1 point
- Ethically acceptable as informed consent is given.
*
limitations of overt observations?
2 points
- Demand characteristics likely which reduces validity of findings.
- Behaviour can be distorted through investigator effects in which the participant changes their behaviour through social desirability bias
what is participant observation?
the researcher who is observing is part of the group that is being observed.
strengths of participant observation?
1 point
- Can be more insightful which increases the validity of the findings.
limitations of participant observations?
2 points
- Researcher may lose objectivity as may start to identify too strongly with the participants.
- There’s always the possibility that behaviour may change if the participants were to find out they are being watched.
what is non-participant observations?
The researcher observes from a distance so is not part of the group being observed.
strengths of non-participant observations?
1 point
- Researcher can be more objective as less likely to identify with participants since watching from outside of the group.
limitations of non-participant observations?
1 point
- Researchers may lose some valuable insight.
what is unstructured observation?
consists of continuous recording where the researcher writes everything they see during the observation
strengths of unstructured observation?
1 point
- More richness and depth of detail.
limitations of unstructured observation?
2 points
- Produces qualitative data which is more difficult to record & analyse
- Greater risk of observer bias
what is structured observation?
using behavioural categories and sampling methods to record behaviours in a systematic way
strengths of structured observation?
3 points
- Easier as is more systematic.
- Quantitative data is collected which is easy to analyse and compare with other data.
- There is less risk of observer bias.
limitations of structured observation?
1 point
- Not much depth of detail.
what are behaviour categories?
this is when a target behaviour which is being observed is broken up into more precise components which are observable and measurable
what is time sampling?
recording behaviour in a time frame e.g. every 30 seconds
strengths of time sampling?
1 point
- It reduces the number of observations that has to made so it is less time consuming.
limitations of time sampling?
1 point
- The small amount of data that you collect within that time frame ends up being unrepresentative of the observation as a whole.
what is event sampling?
counting the number of times a certain behaviour occurs in the target individual
strengths of event sampling?
1 point
- It is good for infrequent behaviours that are likely to be missed if time sampling was used.
limitations of event sampling?
2 points
- If the behaviour is very frequent, there could be counting errors.
- If complex behaviour is being observed, important details of the behaviour may be overlooked by the observer.
what are the ethical issues?
5 issues
DRIPC
- deception
- right to withdraw
- informed consent
- protection from harm
- confidentiality
explain deception
This is the act of deliberately withholding information from participants or misleading them during the research study.
how do i solve deception
1 point
- debriefing - During the debrief the true nature of the study must be said and the participants should be told what their data will be used for.
how do i solve right to withdraw
- before, during and after the investigation the researcher should ask the participants if they want to withdraw
expain informed consent
- Participants must be told the purpose of the investigation and about any potential risks they may be subject to when taking part in it.
how do i solve informed consent
3 points
- prior general consent
- presumptive consent
- retroactive consent
expain prior general consent
participants agree to a list of potential features of a research study not knowing which aspects will be a part of the study they are in
expain retroactive consent
the reseacher asks for consent after the participant has taken part in the study, if the participant doesn’t agree to take take part they’re data is destroyed
explain presumptive consent
the researcher asks a group similar to the sample if they would agree to take part in the research, if the group agrees the researcher assumes that the participants would also agree
expain protection from harm
Participants must be protected from physical and psychological harm. It is the job of the researcher to make sure of this.
how do i solve protection from harm
A Cost-Benefit Analysis should be done before a study is carried out. This is done by the ethics committee whereby the pros and cons of the study are weighed up to determine whether the study will be ethical.
how do i solve confidentiality
the researchers can refer to the participants using numbers or initials
what are the 2 types of self report data
questionnares and interviews
what are the 2 types of questions
open and closed
what do closed questions collect
quantitative data
what do open questions collect
qualitative data
what are open questions
the question is phrased in a way that allows the participant to answer in a any way they choose e.g. what do you think about cars?
what are closed questions
consists of questions which restrict you to a fixed number of responses.
what are the strengths of closed questions
1 point
- Easy to analyse data and compare with data from elsewhere.
what are the limitations of closed questions
2 points
- Lack of depth and detail.
- Can be limiting which can be frustrating for participants.
what are the strengths of open questions
1 point
- Rich in depth and detail
what are the limitations of open question
1 point
- Difficult to convert to statistical data hence more difficult to analyse.
how do i construct a questionnaire
5 points
- clarity - don’t use double negatives
- bias - don’t use leading questions
- filler questions - irrelevant questions to distract the respondent
- sequence questions - start with easy ones
- pilot study - test questions on a small group of people
strengths of questionnares?
4 points
- Cost-effective.
- Gathers large amounts of data quickly.
- The researcher does not need to be present.
- They are easy to analyse.
limitations of questionnares?
3 points
*They take a long time to design
* responses may not be truthful - social desirability
* acquiescence bias whereby participants says yes to all questions
what are the 3 types of interviews
- structured
- semi-structured
- unstructured
what are structured interviews
interviewer has prepared questions set up to be asked in a specific order
what are semi-structured interviews
combination of prepared questions with ability to ask additional questions
what are unstructured interviews
no setist of questions, an open conversation on a topic
strengths of structured questions?
2 points
- Standardisation is possible.
- Easily replicable.
limitations of structured questions
1 point
responses cant be followed up by follow up questions to provide more detail
strengths of unstructured questions?
2 points
- Lots of data is collected with more depth and detail
- rapport is more likley (particpant feels more comfortable to answer
limitation of unstructured questions?
3 points
- Skilled interviewers needed.
- Interviewer bias also presented.
- Social desirability bias.
