Research Methods Key Words Flashcards
Ecological validity
The degree to which a research finding an be generalised to another setting
Population validity
The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other groups of people
Historical validity
The degree to which a research finding can be generalised over time
Control
Refers to the extent to which any variable is held constant or regulated by a researcher
Mundane realism
Refers to how a study mirrors the real world. The stimulated task environment is realistic to the degree to which experiences encountered in the environment will occur in the real world
Confidentiality
A participants right to have personal information protected
Deception
Where a participant is not told the true aims of a study and this cannot give truly informed consent
Informed consent
Participants have the right to be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate
Privacy
A persons right to control the flow of information about themselves
Protection from harm
During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, low self esteem or embarrassment
Right to withdraw
Participants should have the right to withdraw from participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way, and should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they produced
Ethics committee
A group of people within a research institution that just approve a study before it begins
Ethical guidelines
Concrete, quasi-legal documents that help to guide conduct within psychology by establishing principles for standard practise and competence
Presumptive consent
A method if dealing with a lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in the study. If this group consents it is presumed the real participants would have also agreed
Directional hypothesis
States the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participants
Non directional hypothesis
Predicts simply that there will be a difference between two conditions/groups without stating the direction of the difference
Pilot study
A small scale trail run of a study to test any aspects of the design with a view to making improvements
Confederate
An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by the investigator
Counterbalancing
An experimental technique used to overcome the order effects. It ensures that each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts
Experimental design
A set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as participant variables in an experiment
Independent groups
Participants are allocated to a group representing an experimental condition, they take part in only this condition
Matched pairs
Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age or IQ, one member of each pair is placed in the experimental group and the other is placed in the control group
Order effect
An extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented ( in repeated measures design)
Random allocation
Allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques
Repeated measures
Each participant takes part in every condition
Single blind
A type of research design in which the participant is not aware if the research aims or if which condition of the experiment they are receiving
Demand characteristics
A cue that makes participants aware of what the researcher expects to find, or how participants are expected to behave. Can change the outcome of the study as participants are changing their behaviour
Double blind
Neither the participant not the experimenter are aware of the important details and this have no expectations
Experimental realism
The extent to which participants become involved in an experiment and become less influenced by cues about how to behave
Hawthorne effect
The tendency for participants to alter their behaviour merely as a result of knowing that they are being observed
Investigator bias
The effect that an investigators expectations have on the participants and thus on the result of a research study
Investigator effect
Anything that the investigator does that has an effect on the participants performance in a study, other than what was intended
Social desirability bias
A tendency for respondents to answer questions in a way that will present them in a better light
Mean
An average, add everything together and divide by the amount
Measure of central tendency
A descriptive statistic that provides information about a ‘typical’ response for a data set
Measure if dispersion
A descriptive statistic that provides informations about how spread out a set of scores is
Median
The middle result
Mode
The most frequently recurring score in a data set
Qualitative
Data that expresses the quality of things, words, descriptions ect. Can be turned into quantitative data by placing them into categories
Quantitative
Data represented in numbers or quantities
Quantitative dats analysis
Any means of representing trends from numerical data
Range
The difference between the highest and the lowest score in a data set
Standard deviation
Shows the amount of variation in a data set. It assesses the spread of data around the mean
Field experiment
A controlled experiment conducted outside of a lab. Tend to have low internal validity and high external validity. Less participant effects
Laboratory experiment
An experiment carried out in a controlled setting. Tend to have high internal validity and low external validity
Difference studies
Studies in which two groups of participants are compared in terms of a DV
Natural experiment
A research method in which the experimenter cannot manipulate the independent variable, but where it varies naturally and the effect can be observed on a dependant variable
Quasi experiments
Studies that are ‘almost’ experiments but lack one or more features of a true experiment, such as full control over the IV and random allocation of participants to conditions. This means that they cannot claim to demonstrate causal relationships
Behavioural categories
Dividing a target behaviour into a subset of behaviours. This can be done using a behaviour checklist or a coding system
Controlled observation
A form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under controlled conditions
Event sampling
An observational technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour occurs
Naturalistic observation
A research method carried out in a naturalistic setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in any way
Observation techniques
The application of systematic methods of observation in an observational study, experiment, or other study
Sampling
The process of taking a sample which is intended to be a representative selection of a target population
Systematic(structured) observations
An observer uses various systems to organise observations, such as behavioural categories and sampling procedures
Time sampling
An observational technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time frame e.g. Noting what they are doing every 30 seconds
Unstructured observations
An observer records all relevant behaviour but has no system. This technique may be chosen bc the behaviour to be studied is largely unpredictable
Behaviour checklist
A list if the behaviours to be recorded during an observational study
Coding system
A systematic method for recording observations in which individual behaviours are given a code for ease of recording
Covert observations
Observing people without their knowledge e.g. Using one way mirrors. Knowing they are being observed is likely to alter the participants behaviour
Inter observer reliability
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour. Rule=total no of agreements/total number of observations=>80% then the data has high inter-observer reliability
Observer bias
In observational studies, there is the danger that observers might ‘see’ what they expect to see. This reduces the validity of the observations
Reliability
A measure of consistency both within a set of scores or items and also over time, such that it is possible to obtain the same results on multiple occasions
Opportunity sample
A sample of participant produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study
Random sample
A sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every member if the target population being tested has an equal chance of being selected
Stratified sample
Groups of participants are selected according to their frequency in the population in order to obtain a representative sample. Groups are selected from the target population that needs to be represented, individuals sampled from the group. Individuals are chosen randomly
Quota sample
Groups of participants are selected according to their frequency in the population. Groups are selected from the target population that need to be represented. Individuals are chosen from this group(not chosen randomly)
Systematic sample
A method of obtaining a representative sample by selecting every 5th or 10th person. Can be random sample if the first person was chosen randomly
Target population
The group of people that the researcher is interested in.
Volunteer bias
A form of sampling bias because volunteer participants are usually more highly motivated than randomly selected participants
Volunteer sample
A sample of participants produced by a sampling technique that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample
Closed questions
Questions that has a range of answers from which respondents select one;produces quantitative data
Interview
A research method or technique that involves a face to face real time interaction with another individual and results in the collection of data
Open questions
Questions that invite the respondents to provide their own answers rather than select one of those provided. Tend to produce qualitative data
Questionnaire
Data is collected through the use of written questions
Structured interview
Any interview in which the questions are decided in advance
Unstructured interview
The interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewees answers guide subsequent questions
Inter-interviewer reliability
The extent to which two interviewers produce the same outcome from an interview
Interviewer bias
The effect on an interviewers expectations, communicated unconsciously, on a respondents behaviour
Correlation
Determining the extent of a relationship between two variables
Correlation coefficient
A number between -1 and 1 that tells us how closely the co-variables in a correlational analysis are related
Intervening variable
A variable that comes between two other variables which is used to explain the relationship between those two variables
Scattergram
A graphical representation of the relationship between two sets of scores
Significance
A statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong for us to accept the research hypothesis under test
Case study
A research method that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event. Case studies provide a rich record of human experience but are hard to generalise from
Content analysis
A kind of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly in written or verbal material such as interviews, conversations, books, diaries, or TV programmes. Behaviour is categorised and may be counted
Attrition
The loss of participants from a study over time. This is likely the leave a biased sample or a sample that is too small
Cohort effects
One group if participants may have unique characteristics because of time specific experiences during the development of its members, such as being a child in the Second World War
Control condition
In a repeated measures experiment, the condition that provides a baseline measure if behaviour without the experimental treatment (IV), so that the effect if the IV may be measured
Control group
In an independent groups experiment, a group if participants who receive no treatment. Their behaviour acts as a baseline against which the effect of the IV may be measured
Cross cultural study
A kind is natural experiment in which the IV us different cultural practices and the DV is behaviour such as attachment. This enables researchers to investigate the effects of nature and nurture
Cross sectional study
One group of participants of a young age are compared with another, older group of participants, with a view to finding out the influence if age in the behaviour in question
Effect size
A measure of the strength if the relationship between two variables
Experimental conditions
In a repeated measures design, the condition containing the experimental treatment
Imposed etic
A technique or theory is developed in one culture and then used to study the behaviour of people in a different culture which has different norms, values experiences etc
Longitudinal study
Observation of the same items over a long period if times such studies usually aim to compare the same individuals at different ages, in which case the IV is age
Meta analysis
A researcher looks at the findings from a number if different studies i order to reach a general conclusion about a particular hypothesis
Role play
A controlled observation in which participants are asked to imagine how they would behave in certain situations, and act out the part.
Internal validity
Whether the study has tested what it set out to test; the degree to which the observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation rather than other factors such as extraneous variables
Aim
A statement of what the researchers intent to find out in a research study
