Research methods key terms

Question 1

Aim

Answer 1

A statement of what the researcher(s) intend to find out in a research study

Question 2

debriefing

Answer 2

a post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study. It may also be used to gain useful feedback about the procedures in the study. Debriefing is not an ethical issue; it is a means of dealing which ethical

Question 3

ethical issues

Answer 3

concern questions of right and wrong. They arise in research where there are conflicting sets of values between researchers and participants concerning the goals, procedures or outcomes of a research study

Question 4

experiment

Answer 4

a research method where causal conclusions can be drawn because an independent variable has been deliberately manipulated to observe the causal effect on the dependent variable

Question 5

extraneous variables

Answer 5

do not vary systematically with the IV and therefore do not act as an alternative IV but may have an effect on the dependent variable. They are nuisance variables that muddy the waters and make it more difficult to detect a significant effect

Question 6

hypothesis

Answer 6

a precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables. Operationalisation is a key part of making the statement testable

Question 7

independent variable (IV)

Answer 7

some event that is directly manipulated by an experimenter in order to test its effect on another variable - the dependent variable (DV)

Question 8

informed consent

Answer 8

participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate

Question 9

operationalise

Answer 9

ensuring that variables are in a form that can easily be tested. a concept such as ‘educational attainment’ needs to be specified more clearly if we are going to investigate it. e.g. it might be operationalised as ‘GCSE grade in Maths’

Question 10

standardised procedures

Answer 10

a set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study. This includes standardised instructions - the instructions given to participants to tell them how to perform the task

Question 11

confounding variable

Answer 11

a variable under study that is not the IV but which varies systematically with the IV. Changes in the dependent variable may be due to the confounding variable rather than the IV, and therefore the outcome is meaningless. To ‘confound’ means to cause confusion

Question 12

control

Answer 12

refers to the extent to which any variable is held constant or regulated by a researcher

Question 13

external validity

Answer 13

the degree to which a research finding can be generalised: to other settings (ecological validity); to other groups of people (population validity); over time (historical validity)

Question 14

ecological validity

Answer 14

the degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other settings

Question 15

population validity

Answer 15

the degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other groups of people

Question 16

historical validity

Answer 16

the degree to which a research finding can be generalised over time

Question 17

extraneous variables

Answer 17

do not vary systematically with the IV and therefore do not act as an alternative IV but may have an effect on the DV. They are nuisance variables that muddy waters and make it more difficult to detect significant effect

Question 18

internal validity

Answer 18

the degree to which an observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation rather than other factors such as confounding/ extraneous variables

Question 19

mundane realism

Answer 19

refers to how a study mirrors the real world. the research environment is realistic to the degree to which experiences encountered in the research environment will occur in the real world

Question 20

validity

Answer 20

refers to whether an observed effect is a genuine one

Question 21

confederate

Answer 21

an individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed on how to behave by the investigator

Question 22

directional hypothesis

Answer 22

states the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participants

Question 23

non directional hypothesis

Answer 23

predicts simply that there is a difference between two conditions or two groups of participants, without stating the direction of the difference

Question 24

pilot study

Answer 24

a small scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements

Question 25

counterbalancing

Answer 25

an experimental technique used to overcome order effects when using a repeated measures design. Counterbalancing ensures that each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts

Question 26

experimental design

Answer 26

a set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as participant variables in an experiment

Question 27

Independent groups design

Answer 27

participants are allocated to two (or more) groups representing different levels of the IV. Allocation is usually done using random techniques

Question 28

Matched pairs design

Answer 28

pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second person is allocated to the other condition

Question 29

order effect

Answer 29

in a repeated measures design, an extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented, e.g. a practice effect or fatigue effect

Question 30

random allocation

Answer 30

allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques

Question 31

repeated measures design

Answer 31

each participant takes part in every condition under test, i.e. each level of the IV

Question 32

field experiment

Answer 32

A controlled experiment conducted outside a laboratory. The IV is still manipulated by the experimenter, and therefore casual relationships can be demonstrated. Field experiments tend to have lower internal validity (more difficult to control extraneous and confounding variables) and higher external validity (greater mundane realism). Participants are usually unaware that they are participating in an experiment; thus their behaviour may be more natural and they are less likely to respond to cues from the experimenter

Question 33

laboratory experiment

Answer 33

an experiment carried out in a controlled setting. Lab experiments tend to have high internal validity because good control over all variables is possible. They tend to have low ecological validity because participants are aware they are being studied and also the tasks involved tend to be more artificial

Question 34

natural experiment

Answer 34

a research method in which the experimenter has not manipulated the independent variable (IV) directly. The IV would not vary whether or not the researcher was interested. The researcher records the effect of the IV on a dependent variable (DV) - this DV may be measured in a lab. Strictly speaking, an experiment involves the deliberate manipulation of an IV and random allocation to conditions by the experimenter - neither of which apply to a natural experiment and therefore causal conclusions can only tentatively be drawn

Question 35

Quasi experiments

Answer 35

studies that are 'almost' experiments. The IV is actually not something that varies at all - it is a condition that exists. The researcher records the effect of this 'quasi-IV' on a dependent variable (DV). As with a natural experiment, the lack of manipulation of the IV and the lack of random allocation means that causal conclusions can only tentatively be drawn

Question 36

demand characteristics

Answer 36

a cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of a study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find

Question 37

investigator effect

Answer 37

(sometimes referred to as investigator or experimenter bias). Anything that an investigator does that has an effect on a participants performance in a study other than what was intended. This includes direct effects (as a consequence of the investigator interacting with the participant) and indirect effects (as a consequence of the investigator designing the study). Investigator effects may act as a confounding or extraneous variable

Question 38

bias

Answer 38

a systematic distortion

Question 39

generalisation

Answer 39

applying the findings of a particular study to the population

Question 40

opportunity sample

Answer 40

a sample of participants produced by selecting people who are the most easily available at the time of the study

Question 41

population

Answer 41

the group of the people that the researcher is interested in. The group of people from whom a sample is drawn. The group of people about whom generalisations can be made

Question 42

random sample

Answer 42

a sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population being tested has an equal chance of being selected

Question 43

sampling

Answer 43

the method used to select participants, such as random, opportunity and volunteer sampling, or to sample behaviours in an observation such as event or time sampling

Question 44

stratified sample

Answer 44

a sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population. Participants are then selected randomly from the subgroups

Question 45

systematic sample

Answer 45

a sample obtained by selecting every nth person (where n is any number). This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method; you then select every nth person after that

Question 46

volunteer bias

Answer 46

a form of sampling bias (distortion) because volunteer participants have special characteristics, such as usually being more highly motivated than randomly selected participants

Question 47

volunteer sample

Answer 47

a sample pf participants that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample. Also called a self-selected sample

Question 48

confidentiality

Answer 48

concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that the information will be protected

Question 49

deception

Answer 49

a participant is not told the true aims of the study and this cannot give truly informed consent

Question 50

privacy

Answer 50

a persons right to control the flow of information about themselves

Question 51

protection from harm

Answer 51

during a research study, participants should not experience negative psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self esteem or embarrassment

Question 52

right to withdraw

Answer 52

participants can stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way. This is especially important in cases where it was not possible to give fully informed consent. Participants should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they produced

Question 53

cost-benefit analysis

Answer 53

a systematic approach to estimating the negatives and positives of any research

Question 54

debriefing

Answer 54

a post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they ere in at the start of the study. It may also be use to gain useful feedback about the procedures in the study. Debriefing is not an ethical issue, it is a means if dealing with ethical issues

Question 55

ethical guidelines (code of conduct)

Answer 55

a set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity

Question 56

ethics committee

Answer 56

a group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins

Question 57

presumptive consent

Answer 57

a method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in a study. If this group of people consents to the procedures in the proposed study it is presumed that the real participants would have also agreed

Question 58

controlled observation

Answer 58

a form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under conditions where certain variables have been organised by the researcher

Question 59

covert observations

Answer 59

observing people without their knowledge. Knowing that behaviour is being observed is likely to alter a participants behaviour

Question 60

inter-observer reliability

Answer 60

the extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour

Question 61

naturalistic observation

Answer 61

an observation carried out in everyday setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in any way but merely observes the behaviour(s) in question

Question 62

non participant observation

Answer 62

the observer is separate form the people being observed

Question 63

observer bias

Answer 63

observers expectations affect what they see or hear. This reduces the validity of the observations

Question 64

overt observation

Answer 64

observational studies where participants are aware that their behaviour is being studied

Question 65

participant observation

Answer 65

observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed, which may affect their objectivity

Question 66

behavioural categories

Answer 66

dividing a target behaviour (such as stress or aggression) into a subset of specific and operationalised behaviours

Question 67

event sampling

Answer 67

an observational technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour (event) occurs

Question 68

sampling

Answer 68

the method used to select participants, such as random, opportunity and volunteer sampling, or select behaviours in an observation such as event or time sampling

Question 69

structured observation

Answer 69

a researcher uses various systems to organise observations, such as behavioural categories and sampling procedures

Question 70

time sampling

Answer 70

an observational technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time frame, e.g. noting what a target individual is doing every 15 seconds or 20 seconds or 1 minute. The observer may select one or more behavioural categories to tick at this time interval

Question 71

Interview

Answer 71

a research method or technique that involves a face to face, 'real time' interaction with another individual and results in the collection of data

Question 72

Interviewer bias

Answer 72

The effect of an interviwers expectations, communicated unconsciously, on a respondents behaviour

Question 73

questionnaire

Answer 73

data collected through the use of written questions

Question 74

social desirability bias

Answer 74

a distortion in the way people answer questions - they tend to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light

Question 75

Structured interview

Answer 75

any interview in which the questions are decided in advance

Question 76

Unstructured interview

Answer 76

the interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewee's answers guide subsequent questions

Question 77

closed questions

Answer 77

questions that have a predetermined range of answers from which respondents select one. Tend to produce qualitative data - but, for example, Yes/No answers are qualitative. They then can be counted to produce qualitative data

Question 78

Open questions

Answer 78

questions that invite respondents to provide their own answers rather than select one of those provided. Tend to produce qualitative data

Question 79

qualitative data

Answer 79

non numerical data

Question 80

qualitative data

Answer 80

data in numbers

Question 81

co variable

Answer 81

the two measured variables in a correlational analysis. the variables must be continuous

Question 82

continuous variable

Answer 82

a variable that can take on any value within a certain range. Liking football (on a scale of 1-10) is continuous whereas the football team a person supports isn't. The latter could be arranged in any order

Question 83

correlation

Answer 83

determining the extent of an association between two variables; co-variables may not be linked at all (zero correlation), they may both increase together (positive correlation), or as one co-variable increases , the other decreases (negative correlation)

Question 84

correlation coefficient

Answer 84

a number between -1 and +1 that tells us how closely the co-variables in a correlational analysis are associated

Question 85

curvilinear correlation

Answer 85

a non linear relationship between co-variables

Question 86

Intervening variable

Answer 86

a variable that comes between two other variables, which is used to explain the association between those two variables. For example, if a positive correlation is found between ice cream sales and violence this may be explained by an intervening variable - heat - which causes the increase in ice cream sales and the increase in violence

Question 87

linear correlation

Answer 87

a systematic relationship between co-variables that is defined by a straight line

Question 88

scattergram

Answer 88

a graphical representation of the association (i.e. the correlation) between two sets of scores

Question 89

significance

Answer 89

a statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong for us to accept the research hypothesis under test