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Research methods key terms Flashcards

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1
Q

Aim

A

A statement of what the researcher(s) intend to find out in a research study

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2
Q

debriefing

A

a post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study. It may also be used to gain useful feedback about the procedures in the study. Debriefing is not an ethical issue; it is a means of dealing which ethical

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3
Q

ethical issues

A

concern questions of right and wrong. They arise in research where there are conflicting sets of values between researchers and participants concerning the goals, procedures or outcomes of a research study

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4
Q

experiment

A

a research method where causal conclusions can be drawn because an independent variable has been deliberately manipulated to observe the causal effect on the dependent variable

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5
Q

extraneous variables

A

do not vary systematically with the IV and therefore do not act as an alternative IV but may have an effect on the dependent variable. They are nuisance variables that muddy the waters and make it more difficult to detect a significant effect

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6
Q

hypothesis

A

a precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables. Operationalisation is a key part of making the statement testable

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7
Q

independent variable (IV)

A

some event that is directly manipulated by an experimenter in order to test its effect on another variable - the dependent variable (DV)

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8
Q

informed consent

A

participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate

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9
Q

operationalise

A

ensuring that variables are in a form that can easily be tested. a concept such as ‘educational attainment’ needs to be specified more clearly if we are going to investigate it. e.g. it might be operationalised as ‘GCSE grade in Maths’

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10
Q

standardised procedures

A

a set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study. This includes standardised instructions - the instructions given to participants to tell them how to perform the task

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11
Q

confounding variable

A

a variable under study that is not the IV but which varies systematically with the IV. Changes in the dependent variable may be due to the confounding variable rather than the IV, and therefore the outcome is meaningless. To ‘confound’ means to cause confusion

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12
Q

control

A

refers to the extent to which any variable is held constant or regulated by a researcher

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13
Q

external validity

A

the degree to which a research finding can be generalised: to other settings (ecological validity); to other groups of people (population validity); over time (historical validity)

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14
Q

ecological validity

A

the degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other settings

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15
Q

population validity

A

the degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other groups of people

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16
Q

historical validity

A

the degree to which a research finding can be generalised over time

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17
Q

extraneous variables

A

do not vary systematically with the IV and therefore do not act as an alternative IV but may have an effect on the DV. They are nuisance variables that muddy waters and make it more difficult to detect significant effect

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18
Q

internal validity

A

the degree to which an observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation rather than other factors such as confounding/ extraneous variables

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19
Q

mundane realism

A

refers to how a study mirrors the real world. the research environment is realistic to the degree to which experiences encountered in the research environment will occur in the real world

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20
Q

validity

A

refers to whether an observed effect is a genuine one

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21
Q

confederate

A

an individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed on how to behave by the investigator

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22
Q

directional hypothesis

A

states the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participants

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23
Q

non directional hypothesis

A

predicts simply that there is a difference between two conditions or two groups of participants, without stating the direction of the difference

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24
Q

pilot study

A

a small scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements

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25
Q

counterbalancing

A

an experimental technique used to overcome order effects when using a repeated measures design. Counterbalancing ensures that each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts

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26
Q

experimental design

A

a set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as participant variables in an experiment

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27
Q

Independent groups design

A

participants are allocated to two (or more) groups representing different levels of the IV. Allocation is usually done using random techniques

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28
Q

Matched pairs design

A

pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second person is allocated to the other condition

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29
Q

order effect

A

in a repeated measures design, an extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented, e.g. a practice effect or fatigue effect

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30
Q

random allocation

A

allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques

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31
Q

repeated measures design

A

each participant takes part in every condition under test, i.e. each level of the IV

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32
Q

field experiment

A

A controlled experiment conducted outside a laboratory. The IV is still manipulated by the experimenter, and therefore casual relationships can be demonstrated. Field experiments tend to have lower internal validity (more difficult to control extraneous and confounding variables) and higher external validity (greater mundane realism). Participants are usually unaware that they are participating in an experiment; thus their behaviour may be more natural and they are less likely to respond to cues from the experimenter

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33
Q

laboratory experiment

A

an experiment carried out in a controlled setting. Lab experiments tend to have high internal validity because good control over all variables is possible. They tend to have low ecological validity because participants are aware they are being studied and also the tasks involved tend to be more artificial

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34
Q

natural experiment

A

a research method in which the experimenter has not manipulated the independent variable (IV) directly. The IV would not vary whether or not the researcher was interested. The researcher records the effect of the IV on a dependent variable (DV) - this DV may be measured in a lab. Strictly speaking, an experiment involves the deliberate manipulation of an IV and random allocation to conditions by the experimenter - neither of which apply to a natural experiment and therefore causal conclusions can only tentatively be drawn

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35
Q

Quasi experiments

A

studies that are ‘almost’ experiments. The IV is actually not something that varies at all - it is a condition that exists. The researcher records the effect of this ‘quasi-IV’ on a dependent variable (DV). As with a natural experiment, the lack of manipulation of the IV and the lack of random allocation means that causal conclusions can only tentatively be drawn

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36
Q

demand characteristics

A

a cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of a study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find

37
Q

investigator effect

A

(sometimes referred to as investigator or experimenter bias). Anything that an investigator does that has an effect on a participants performance in a study other than what was intended. This includes direct effects (as a consequence of the investigator interacting with the participant) and indirect effects (as a consequence of the investigator designing the study). Investigator effects may act as a confounding or extraneous variable

38
Q

bias

A

a systematic distortion

39
Q

generalisation

A

applying the findings of a particular study to the population

40
Q

opportunity sample

A

a sample of participants produced by selecting people who are the most easily available at the time of the study

41
Q

population

A

the group of the people that the researcher is interested in. The group of people from whom a sample is drawn. The group of people about whom generalisations can be made

42
Q

random sample

A

a sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population being tested has an equal chance of being selected

43
Q

sampling

A

the method used to select participants, such as random, opportunity and volunteer sampling, or to sample behaviours in an observation such as event or time sampling

44
Q

stratified sample

A

a sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population. Participants are then selected randomly from the subgroups

45
Q

systematic sample

A

a sample obtained by selecting every nth person (where n is any number). This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method; you then select every nth person after that

46
Q

volunteer bias

A

a form of sampling bias (distortion) because volunteer participants have special characteristics, such as usually being more highly motivated than randomly selected participants

47
Q

volunteer sample

A

a sample pf participants that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample. Also called a self-selected sample

48
Q

confidentiality

A

concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that the information will be protected

49
Q

deception

A

a participant is not told the true aims of the study and this cannot give truly informed consent

50
Q

privacy

A

a persons right to control the flow of information about themselves

51
Q

protection from harm

A

during a research study, participants should not experience negative psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self esteem or embarrassment

52
Q

right to withdraw

A

participants can stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way. This is especially important in cases where it was not possible to give fully informed consent. Participants should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they produced

53
Q

cost-benefit analysis

A

a systematic approach to estimating the negatives and positives of any research

54
Q

debriefing

A

a post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they ere in at the start of the study. It may also be use to gain useful feedback about the procedures in the study. Debriefing is not an ethical issue, it is a means if dealing with ethical issues

55
Q

ethical guidelines (code of conduct)

A

a set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity

56
Q

ethics committee

A

a group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins

57
Q

presumptive consent

A

a method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in a study. If this group of people consents to the procedures in the proposed study it is presumed that the real participants would have also agreed

58
Q

controlled observation

A

a form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under conditions where certain variables have been organised by the researcher

59
Q

covert observations

A

observing people without their knowledge. Knowing that behaviour is being observed is likely to alter a participants behaviour

60
Q

inter-observer reliability

A

the extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour

61
Q

naturalistic observation

A

an observation carried out in everyday setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in any way but merely observes the behaviour(s) in question

62
Q

non participant observation

A

the observer is separate form the people being observed

63
Q

observer bias

A

observers expectations affect what they see or hear. This reduces the validity of the observations

64
Q

overt observation

A

observational studies where participants are aware that their behaviour is being studied

65
Q

participant observation

A

observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed, which may affect their objectivity

66
Q

behavioural categories

A

dividing a target behaviour (such as stress or aggression) into a subset of specific and operationalised behaviours

67
Q

event sampling

A

an observational technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour (event) occurs

68
Q

sampling

A

the method used to select participants, such as random, opportunity and volunteer sampling, or select behaviours in an observation such as event or time sampling

69
Q

structured observation

A

a researcher uses various systems to organise observations, such as behavioural categories and sampling procedures

70
Q

time sampling

A

an observational technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time frame, e.g. noting what a target individual is doing every 15 seconds or 20 seconds or 1 minute. The observer may select one or more behavioural categories to tick at this time interval

71
Q

Interview

A

a research method or technique that involves a face to face, ‘real time’ interaction with another individual and results in the collection of data

72
Q

Interviewer bias

A

The effect of an interviwers expectations, communicated unconsciously, on a respondents behaviour

73
Q

questionnaire

A

data collected through the use of written questions

74
Q

social desirability bias

A

a distortion in the way people answer questions - they tend to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light

75
Q

Structured interview

A

any interview in which the questions are decided in advance

76
Q

Unstructured interview

A

the interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions

77
Q

closed questions

A

questions that have a predetermined range of answers from which respondents select one. Tend to produce qualitative data - but, for example, Yes/No answers are qualitative. They then can be counted to produce qualitative data

78
Q

Open questions

A

questions that invite respondents to provide their own answers rather than select one of those provided. Tend to produce qualitative data

79
Q

qualitative data

A

non numerical data

80
Q

qualitative data

A

data in numbers

81
Q

co variable

A

the two measured variables in a correlational analysis. the variables must be continuous

82
Q

continuous variable

A

a variable that can take on any value within a certain range. Liking football (on a scale of 1-10) is continuous whereas the football team a person supports isn’t. The latter could be arranged in any order

83
Q

correlation

A

determining the extent of an association between two variables; co-variables may not be linked at all (zero correlation), they may both increase together (positive correlation), or as one co-variable increases , the other decreases (negative correlation)

84
Q

correlation coefficient

A

a number between -1 and +1 that tells us how closely the co-variables in a correlational analysis are associated

85
Q

curvilinear correlation

A

a non linear relationship between co-variables

86
Q

Intervening variable

A

a variable that comes between two other variables, which is used to explain the association between those two variables. For example, if a positive correlation is found between ice cream sales and violence this may be explained by an intervening variable - heat - which causes the increase in ice cream sales and the increase in violence

87
Q

linear correlation

A

a systematic relationship between co-variables that is defined by a straight line

88
Q

scattergram

A

a graphical representation of the association (i.e. the correlation) between two sets of scores

89
Q

significance

A

a statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong for us to accept the research hypothesis under test

Psychology (11 decks)

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