Research methods key terms Flashcards
Aim
A statement of what the researcher(s) intend to find out in a research study
debriefing
a post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study. It may also be used to gain useful feedback about the procedures in the study. Debriefing is not an ethical issue; it is a means of dealing which ethical
ethical issues
concern questions of right and wrong. They arise in research where there are conflicting sets of values between researchers and participants concerning the goals, procedures or outcomes of a research study
experiment
a research method where causal conclusions can be drawn because an independent variable has been deliberately manipulated to observe the causal effect on the dependent variable
extraneous variables
do not vary systematically with the IV and therefore do not act as an alternative IV but may have an effect on the dependent variable. They are nuisance variables that muddy the waters and make it more difficult to detect a significant effect
hypothesis
a precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables. Operationalisation is a key part of making the statement testable
independent variable (IV)
some event that is directly manipulated by an experimenter in order to test its effect on another variable - the dependent variable (DV)
informed consent
participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate
operationalise
ensuring that variables are in a form that can easily be tested. a concept such as ‘educational attainment’ needs to be specified more clearly if we are going to investigate it. e.g. it might be operationalised as ‘GCSE grade in Maths’
standardised procedures
a set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study. This includes standardised instructions - the instructions given to participants to tell them how to perform the task
confounding variable
a variable under study that is not the IV but which varies systematically with the IV. Changes in the dependent variable may be due to the confounding variable rather than the IV, and therefore the outcome is meaningless. To ‘confound’ means to cause confusion
control
refers to the extent to which any variable is held constant or regulated by a researcher
external validity
the degree to which a research finding can be generalised: to other settings (ecological validity); to other groups of people (population validity); over time (historical validity)
ecological validity
the degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other settings
population validity
the degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other groups of people
historical validity
the degree to which a research finding can be generalised over time
extraneous variables
do not vary systematically with the IV and therefore do not act as an alternative IV but may have an effect on the DV. They are nuisance variables that muddy waters and make it more difficult to detect significant effect
internal validity
the degree to which an observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation rather than other factors such as confounding/ extraneous variables
mundane realism
refers to how a study mirrors the real world. the research environment is realistic to the degree to which experiences encountered in the research environment will occur in the real world
validity
refers to whether an observed effect is a genuine one
confederate
an individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed on how to behave by the investigator
directional hypothesis
states the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participants
non directional hypothesis
predicts simply that there is a difference between two conditions or two groups of participants, without stating the direction of the difference
pilot study
a small scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements
counterbalancing
an experimental technique used to overcome order effects when using a repeated measures design. Counterbalancing ensures that each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts
experimental design
a set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as participant variables in an experiment
Independent groups design
participants are allocated to two (or more) groups representing different levels of the IV. Allocation is usually done using random techniques
Matched pairs design
pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second person is allocated to the other condition
order effect
in a repeated measures design, an extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented, e.g. a practice effect or fatigue effect
random allocation
allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques
repeated measures design
each participant takes part in every condition under test, i.e. each level of the IV
field experiment
A controlled experiment conducted outside a laboratory. The IV is still manipulated by the experimenter, and therefore casual relationships can be demonstrated. Field experiments tend to have lower internal validity (more difficult to control extraneous and confounding variables) and higher external validity (greater mundane realism). Participants are usually unaware that they are participating in an experiment; thus their behaviour may be more natural and they are less likely to respond to cues from the experimenter
laboratory experiment
an experiment carried out in a controlled setting. Lab experiments tend to have high internal validity because good control over all variables is possible. They tend to have low ecological validity because participants are aware they are being studied and also the tasks involved tend to be more artificial
natural experiment
a research method in which the experimenter has not manipulated the independent variable (IV) directly. The IV would not vary whether or not the researcher was interested. The researcher records the effect of the IV on a dependent variable (DV) - this DV may be measured in a lab. Strictly speaking, an experiment involves the deliberate manipulation of an IV and random allocation to conditions by the experimenter - neither of which apply to a natural experiment and therefore causal conclusions can only tentatively be drawn
Quasi experiments
studies that are ‘almost’ experiments. The IV is actually not something that varies at all - it is a condition that exists. The researcher records the effect of this ‘quasi-IV’ on a dependent variable (DV). As with a natural experiment, the lack of manipulation of the IV and the lack of random allocation means that causal conclusions can only tentatively be drawn
demand characteristics
a cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of a study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find
investigator effect
(sometimes referred to as investigator or experimenter bias). Anything that an investigator does that has an effect on a participants performance in a study other than what was intended. This includes direct effects (as a consequence of the investigator interacting with the participant) and indirect effects (as a consequence of the investigator designing the study). Investigator effects may act as a confounding or extraneous variable
bias
a systematic distortion
generalisation
applying the findings of a particular study to the population
opportunity sample
a sample of participants produced by selecting people who are the most easily available at the time of the study
population
the group of the people that the researcher is interested in. The group of people from whom a sample is drawn. The group of people about whom generalisations can be made
random sample
a sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population being tested has an equal chance of being selected
sampling
the method used to select participants, such as random, opportunity and volunteer sampling, or to sample behaviours in an observation such as event or time sampling
stratified sample
a sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population. Participants are then selected randomly from the subgroups
systematic sample
a sample obtained by selecting every nth person (where n is any number). This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method; you then select every nth person after that
volunteer bias
a form of sampling bias (distortion) because volunteer participants have special characteristics, such as usually being more highly motivated than randomly selected participants
volunteer sample
a sample pf participants that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample. Also called a self-selected sample
confidentiality
concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that the information will be protected
deception
a participant is not told the true aims of the study and this cannot give truly informed consent
privacy
a persons right to control the flow of information about themselves
protection from harm
during a research study, participants should not experience negative psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self esteem or embarrassment
right to withdraw
participants can stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way. This is especially important in cases where it was not possible to give fully informed consent. Participants should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they produced
cost-benefit analysis
a systematic approach to estimating the negatives and positives of any research
debriefing
a post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they ere in at the start of the study. It may also be use to gain useful feedback about the procedures in the study. Debriefing is not an ethical issue, it is a means if dealing with ethical issues
ethical guidelines (code of conduct)
a set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity
ethics committee
a group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins
presumptive consent
a method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in a study. If this group of people consents to the procedures in the proposed study it is presumed that the real participants would have also agreed
controlled observation
a form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under conditions where certain variables have been organised by the researcher
covert observations
observing people without their knowledge. Knowing that behaviour is being observed is likely to alter a participants behaviour
inter-observer reliability
the extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour
naturalistic observation
an observation carried out in everyday setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in any way but merely observes the behaviour(s) in question
non participant observation
the observer is separate form the people being observed
observer bias
observers expectations affect what they see or hear. This reduces the validity of the observations
overt observation
observational studies where participants are aware that their behaviour is being studied
participant observation
observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed, which may affect their objectivity
behavioural categories
dividing a target behaviour (such as stress or aggression) into a subset of specific and operationalised behaviours
event sampling
an observational technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour (event) occurs
sampling
the method used to select participants, such as random, opportunity and volunteer sampling, or select behaviours in an observation such as event or time sampling
structured observation
a researcher uses various systems to organise observations, such as behavioural categories and sampling procedures
time sampling
an observational technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time frame, e.g. noting what a target individual is doing every 15 seconds or 20 seconds or 1 minute. The observer may select one or more behavioural categories to tick at this time interval
Interview
a research method or technique that involves a face to face, ‘real time’ interaction with another individual and results in the collection of data
Interviewer bias
The effect of an interviwers expectations, communicated unconsciously, on a respondents behaviour
questionnaire
data collected through the use of written questions
social desirability bias
a distortion in the way people answer questions - they tend to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light
Structured interview
any interview in which the questions are decided in advance
Unstructured interview
the interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions
closed questions
questions that have a predetermined range of answers from which respondents select one. Tend to produce qualitative data - but, for example, Yes/No answers are qualitative. They then can be counted to produce qualitative data
Open questions
questions that invite respondents to provide their own answers rather than select one of those provided. Tend to produce qualitative data
qualitative data
non numerical data
qualitative data
data in numbers
co variable
the two measured variables in a correlational analysis. the variables must be continuous
continuous variable
a variable that can take on any value within a certain range. Liking football (on a scale of 1-10) is continuous whereas the football team a person supports isn’t. The latter could be arranged in any order
correlation
determining the extent of an association between two variables; co-variables may not be linked at all (zero correlation), they may both increase together (positive correlation), or as one co-variable increases , the other decreases (negative correlation)
correlation coefficient
a number between -1 and +1 that tells us how closely the co-variables in a correlational analysis are associated
curvilinear correlation
a non linear relationship between co-variables
Intervening variable
a variable that comes between two other variables, which is used to explain the association between those two variables. For example, if a positive correlation is found between ice cream sales and violence this may be explained by an intervening variable - heat - which causes the increase in ice cream sales and the increase in violence
linear correlation
a systematic relationship between co-variables that is defined by a straight line
scattergram
a graphical representation of the association (i.e. the correlation) between two sets of scores
significance
a statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong for us to accept the research hypothesis under test
