Approaches key terms Flashcards
definitions
Empiricism
The belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience. It is generally characterised by the use of the scientific method in psychology
Introspection
The process by which a person gains knowledge about his or her own mental and emotional states as a result of the examination or observation of their conscious thoughts and feelings
Scientific method
Refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable, and the formulation, testing and modification of hypotheses based on these methods
Determinism
All behaviour is seen as being caused
Predictability
It is possible to predict how human beings behave in different conditions
Behaviourist
People who believe that human behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without the need to consider thoughts or feelings
Classical Conditioning
When a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus and is able to produce a conditioned response
Punishment
Involves the application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour, with the result that the behaviour is likely to occur again in the future
Reinforcement
A term used in psychology to refer to anything that strengthens a response and increases the likelihood that it will occur again in the future
Positive reinforcement
Occurs when behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasant e.g. food to a hungry animal or praise give to a child after they do something well
Negative reinforcement
They remove something unpleasant and so restore the organism to the pre aversive state e.g. hitting an off button on an alarm clock allows a person to escape from the unpleasant ringing and restores the restful state before the alarm
Identification
Is a form of influence where an individual adopts an attitude or behaviour because they want to be associated with a particular person or group
Imitation
The action of using someone or something as a model and copying their behaviour
Meditational process
Refer to the internal processes that exist between environment stimuli and the response made by an individual to those stimuli
Social Learning Theory
Learning through observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded
Vicarious reinforcement
Learning that is not a result of direct reinforcement of behaviour, but through observing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour
Cognitive
Relates to mental processes such as perception, memory and reasoning
Cognitive neuroscience
An area of psychology dedicated to the underlying neural bases of cognitive functions
Computer model
Refers to the process of using computer analogies as a representation of human cognition
Inference/Inferring
Means reaching a logical conclusion on the basis of evidence and reasoning
Schema
A cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret information in the brain. Schemas help an individual to make sense of new information
Theoretical Models
In cognitive psychology, models are simplified, usually pictorial, representations of a particular mental process based on current research evidence
Biological Approach
Views humans as biological organisms and so provides biological explanations for all aspects of psychological functioning
Evolution
Refers to the change over successive generations of the genetic makeup of a particular population. The central idea behind the evolutionary perspective is that the genotype of a population is changeable rather than fixed, and that this change is likely to be caused by the process of natural selection
Gene
A part of the chromosome of an organism that carries information in the form of DNA
Genotype
The genetic make-up of an individual. The genotype Is a collection of inherited genetic material that is passed from generation to generation
Natural selection
The process by which inherited characteristics that enhance an individual’s reproductive success or fitness are passed on to the next generation, and so become more widespread in the population over time
Neurochemistry
The study of chemical and neural processes associated with the nervous system
Phenotype
The observable characteristics of an individual. This is a consequence of the interaction of the genotype with the environment
Defence mechanisms
Unconscious strategies that protect our conscious mind from anxiety. Defence mechanisms involve a distortion of reality in some way, so that we are better able to cope with a situation
Psychoanalysis
A term used to describe the personality theory and therapy associated with Sigmund Freud
Psychodynamic
Refers to any theory that emphasises change and development in the individual, particularly those theories where ‘drive’ is a central concept in development. The best known psychodynamic theory is Freudian psychoanalysis
Unconscious
That part of the human mind that contains repressed ideas and memories, as well as original desires and impulses that have never been allowed to enter the conscious mind
Conditions of worth
Conditions imposed on an individual’s behaviour and development that are considered necessary to earn positive regard from significant others
Congruence
If there is similarity between a person’s ideal self and self-image, a state of congruence exists. A difference represents a state of incongruence
Free will
The ability to act on one’s own discretion, i.e. to choose how to behave without being influenced by external forces
Hierarchy of needs
The motivational theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, often displayed as a pyramid. The most basic needs are at the bottom and the higher needs at the top
Humanistic
Refers to the belief that human beings are born with the desire to grow, create and to love, and have the power to direct their own lives
Self
Our personal identity - used with terms self-image and self-concept
Self-actualisation
A term used in different ways. Rogers used it as the drive to realise ones true potential. Maslow used it to describe the final stage of his hierarchy of needs
Determinism
Behaviour is determined by external or internal factors acting upon the individual
Nature
Behaviour is seen to be a product of innate biological or genetic factors
Nurture
Behaviour is a product of environmental influences
Science
A systematic approach to creating knowledge. The method used to gain scientific knowledge is referred to as the scientific method
