Research Methods - Key Definitions Flashcards
Define external validity
The extent to which a study can be generalised, including:
– Ecological validity
– population validity
– temporal validity

Define internal validity
Whether the study has tested what it meant to test and can be generalised beyond the experimental setting
What is the difference between confidentiality and privacy
Confidentiality is the right to have personal information protected
Privacy is the right for an individual to control the flow of information about themselves
What is deception
Participants are not told the true aims of the study and thus cannot give true informed consent
What is protection from harm
Participants should not experience harm for psychological or physiological effects
What is informed consent
The participants right to be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role within it, so that they can can decide whether they wish to participate in the experiment
What is the right to withdraw
Participants should have the right to leave the study at any time if they feel uncomfortable
How do you deal with informed consent and what are the limitations that come with this
– Researchers may be able to gain presumptive consent, and participants are offered the right to withdraw
– the information that is needed to be given may invalidate the purpose of the study
– the participants may not fully understand what they have let themselves in for
How do you deal with deception and what are the limitations of this
– Participants should be fully debrief after the study
– this should also be approved by the ethics committee
– participants may still feel embarrassment or have low self-esteem
How do you deal with the right to withdraw and what are the limitations with this method
– Participants should be fully made aware that they have the right to withdraw, especially those of a young age
– however participants may feel like they cannot withdraw for example (Milgram) if they have been paid or the experiment edges into coercion
How do you deal with protection from harm and what are the limitations to this method
– Stop the study
– take no unnecessary risks greater than real life
– limitations – the experimenter can never truly know what the extent that the study may harm the individual – they cannot always accurately predict the risks of the study
How do you deal with confidentiality and what are the limitations to this method
– Participants names should not be used, rather numbers or false names
– participant identity may still be guessable from the information received
How do you deal with privacy and what are the limitations to this issue
– Privacy refers to not invading people’s personal lives as part of the study- observing people in a park is acceptable, as it is a public place and people would expect to be looked at.
- Make sure that participants are observed in a public space if they haven’t given their informed consent
– participants may be allowed to withhold their data
– however, there is no universal agreement on what constitutes a public place and not everyone may feel that this is acceptable
Directional hypothesis definition and example
States the predicted difference between two conditions
E.g. there will be a higher recall of word is when using a mnemonic technique and we’re not using a mnemonic technique
Nondirectional hypothesis definition
States that there will be a difference, however does not state the direction the difference will be
Null hypothesis definition
States that there will be no difference and has no direction or prediction
What is a pilot study
A small scale investigation used to iron out any potential errors in the study before the real experiment takes place, with a view towards making improvements
What are the limitations of a repeated measures design
Each participant repeats every condition and therefore it may be subject to practice effects, fatigue effects, extraneous variables, participant variables and demand characteristics
What are the limitations of an independent groups design
Participants are allocated to 2 or more conditions, each with a different experimental condition
Therefore, can be subjected to participant variables, and you need twice as many participants
What are the limitations of the matched pairs design
Participants on matched due to their key variables – however, there may not be control over all these variables and this is very time consuming
How can you deal with the limitations of a repeated measures design
1) use counterbalancing – each participant does every condition and it is therefore measured in equal amounts
2) You can use a cover story – single blind
How do you deal with the limitations of an independent groups design
– Use matched pairs design to control participant variables
– randomly allocate participants
– be prepared to spend time and money
How do you deal with the limitations of a matched pairs design
– Limit the number of extraneous variables tested
– conduct a pilot study
What are demand characteristics
- A queue that makes participant aware of what the research expect to find
– participants may I change their behaviour is to confirm the expectations
What is social desirability bias
A tendency for participants to answer questions that will put them in a better light
Give examples of situational variables
Time of day, temperature, noise
Give examples of participant variables
Age, intelligence, motivation, experience, gender
Give the three measures of central tendency and state their limitations and strength
– Mean – uses all values – subject to extreme values and cannot be used with nominal data
– Mode – not subject to extreme values and can be used with nominal data. But, cannot be used when there are two modes. It does not take into account all numbers.
– Median – not affected by extreme scores but does not reflect all values
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the two measures of dispersion
– Range – is easy to calculate and provide you with direct information. However, is affected by extreme values and doesn’t take into account the number of observations
– standard deviation – more precise measurement because it takes into account all of the values, however it may hide extreme values
Lab experiment definition
An experiment that is conducted in a highly controlled environment, attempting to remove extraneous variables in order to study and IV with a DV
Field experiment definition
An experiment carried out in a more natural environment where the independent variable is still manipulated by the experimenter, though with less control of extraneous variables been in a lab
Natural experiment definition
The experimenter does not directly manipulate the independent variable so cause you’re conclusions cannot be made e.g. the study of Romanian orphans
Advantages and disadvantages of a lab experiment
– High control over extraneous variables and high internal validity and easily replicated
– low external validity and artificial
Advantages and disadvantages of a field experiment
– More external validity
– can still establish causal relationships
– avoids participant effects
– does not have as high control over extraneous variables and this reduces the internal validity
Advantages and disadvantages of a natural experiment
– High in ecological validity because real life problems I studied
- Cannot establish a causal relationship
– no control over extraneous variables
– investigator effects
What is the difference between event and time sampling
Event – the number of times a behaviour occurs
time – behaviour is recorded periodically e.g. every 15 seconds
What is a controlled observation
Behaviour is observed under controlled conditions
What is a naturalistic observation
Behaviour is observed in a naturalistic setting, whether investigator does not interfere in anyway but merely observes the behaviour in question
What is a behaviour checklist and what is a coding system
– Behaviour checklist – a list of behaviours to be recorded during an observational study
– coding system – a systematic method for recording behaviours in which individual behaviours are given a code for ease of recording
Difference between a covert an overt observation
– Covert – observing without participants knowledge
– overt – observing with the participants knowledge
Advantages of observational research
– High ecological validity
– more accurate information
– preliminary experiment to produce hypotheses for future investigations
What are the weaknesses of observational research
– No control over extraneous variables
– observer bias
– ethical considerations
Define and evaluate an opportunity sample
Participants chosen by selecting people who are most easily available
– easy to find a dispenser
– cheap to find participants
– biased because it is not random as a sample maybe all from the same social group – e.g. age group
Define and evaluate a volunteer sample
Relies on volunteers to make up the sample
– easy to obtain
– volunteer bias
– limited variety of participants
Define and evaluate a random sample
Every person has thrown into the hat and has an equal chance of being selected
– unbiased
– may end up with a biased sample anyway
Define a systematic sample
Sample obtained by selecting every (Nth) person e.g. every 10th person on a list
Define a stratified sample
Sample obtained according to the frequency in the population e.g. if 20% of your population is female than 20% of your family should be
What is an unstructured interview
No set questions, just a general area of questioning. This allows the participants answers to guide the subsequent questions
Advantages and weaknesses of questionnaires
– Easily replicated
– more willing to reveal the truthful Information
– Biased – only certain types of people fill out questionnaires
- social desirability bias

Advantages and weaknesses of structured interviews
– Easily repeated – reliable
– Less interviewing skills required – cheap
– easy to analyse, particularly if questions are closed
– interview bias as interviewer may behave differently on different occasions
Advantages and disadvantages of unstructured interviews
– Rich in detail – qualitative data
– access more information
– interviewer bias
– well-trained interviewers required
Advantages and disadvantages of correlational analysis
– If correlation is significant – can justify more research into the study
– if not significant, can rule out a causal relationship
– cause and effect cannot be established
– lacks validity
– unknown variables could be causing the relationship
Advantages and disadvantages of a case study
– Rich, in-depth detail
– rare cases
– lower external validity
– ethical issues
– lack objectivity
– unreliable
What is content analysis and how would this be performed on e.g. a magazine
Behaviour is observed in directly on verbal or written material:
1) Select sample method
2) Select behavioural categories – quantitative or qualitative
Advantages and disadvantages of content analysis
– High ecological validity
– findings can be replicated and tested for reliability
– subjective – biased
– culturally biased
What is attrition
The loss of participants from a study over time
What are cohort effects
A group of participants may have unique characteristics because of time to specific experiences. E.g. people born in the 1950s are different people born in the 1990s
What is a control group
Acts as a baseline measurement in an experiment
Definition of a quasi-experiment
Researcher is unable to use random allocation because the independent variable is a particular feature of a participant e.g. gender or a mental disorder
Advantages and disadvantages of quasi-experiment
– Control of variables when carried out under controlled conditions
– more likely to have ecological validity than a lab experiment
– participant location is not random
– difficult to prove causal relationship as the independent variable isn’t being directly manipulated
What are research aims
The aims of the study should be stated before the research begins and are the studies purpose e.g. milligrams in might’ve been to study the effect of authority on obedience
What is the dependent variable
The dependent variable is the variable you think will be affected by changes in the independent variable
What is the independent variable
The independent variable is the variable directly manipulated by the researcher
What is a variable
A variable is a quantity whose value can change
What is operationalisation
Operationalisation is describing the process by which the variable will be measured
What are the difficulties with operationalisation
Somethings that easy to measures such as height, speed or weight, but how do you measure love
What is the purpose of the experimental design
An experimental design must make the hypothesis testable which requires an operationalised dependent variable
Why does research it to be highly controlled
To avoid the effects of extraneous variables by exposing all participants to them or removing them all together
Define counterbalancing
Counterbalancing is mixing up the order of tasks to solve the problem of order effects
What are order effects
If a person is involved in several conditions they may become bored, tired and fed up by the time they come to the second condition
What is random allocation
Random allocation mean that every participant has an equal chance of doing either condition in an independent groups design
What are standardised instructions
A method of ensuring that every participant is given exactly the same instructions in an experiment to avoid researcher bias
Strengths and weaknesses of an overt observation
– More ethically sound because the participants are aware they are being observed
– might alter behaviour, causing demand characteristics
Strengths and weaknesses of a covert observation
– The participants are more likely to behave naturally and therefore increase validity
– gaining ethical approval may be difficult
Advantages of a controlled observation
– High reliability of the experiment is easy to replicate
– greater control over extraneous variables
advantages of a controlled observation
– High and reliability of the experiment is easy to replicate
– greater control over extraneous variables
Disadvantages of a controlled observation
– Low ecological validity in comparison to naturalistic observations
– danger of demand characteristics

What is an operationalised definition
A way of categorising behaviour for an observation by operationalising concepts e.g. what constitutes aggression – punching, kicking, etc.
What is rating behaviour
Behaviours are often a matter of degree rather than absolute, so each behaviour could have several categories or a scale to show this
What is event sampling And what are the advantages and disadvantages
A researcher only records the events they are interested in
– researchers know exactly what they are looking for
– potentially interesting behaviours are ignored
What is time sampling and what are the advantages and disadvantages
A researcher only records behaviours at specific intervals
– Convenient for the researcher to carry out
– interesting behaviours occurring outside of the time intervals would be missed
What is interobserver reliability
A method used to ensure that all observers a defining in categorising behaviours in the same way
Things to consider and avoid in questionnaire design
– Type of data required – open or closed, qualitative or quantitative
– ambiguity of questions
– doublebarrelled questions
– leading questions
– overly complicated questions
Things to consider in data analysis
– Adequate data sampling to ensure representative nurse
– careful use of language and operationalised definitions
– researcher bias to be avoided
What is primary data
Information collected during a research is direct observations of participants
What is secondary data
Information collected from other studies
What is a meta analysis
This is the summarising of the results of a number of different studies
What are the advantages and disadvantages of qualitative data
– Difficult to analyse because of the level of detail
– low in reliability
– high in validity
What is a pilot study
small, trial versions of proposed studies to test their effectiveness and make improvements
What are correlations
- Correlations simply describe the relationship between two variables in statistical terms, but it is not a research method in itself.
- Data collected from various research methods such as observations, questionnaires, and experiments can be analysed to see if there is a relationship between two variables.
- An example of a correlation is the relationship between hours spent revising for an exam and the grade attained.
What are covariables
- Unlike experiments which have an independent variable and a dependent variable, correlations are described in terms of covariables.
- This is because both variables in a correlation vary (change) and are measured, and neither one is set or controlled by the researcher.
What are positive or negative correlations
- Correlations can be positive or negative.
- A positive correlation describes a relationship in which both variables increase together.
- A negative correlation describes a relationship in which one variable increases as the other decreases.
- For example, the relationship between hours spent revising for an exam and the grade attained is a positive correlation. This is because as hours spent revising increase, then the result attained also increases.
Describe correlation coefficients
- The strength of a correlation is described as a correlation coefficient.
- Coefficients range from -1.0 to +1.0, with a coefficient of less than zero describing a negative correlation and a coefficient above zero describing a positive correlation.
- A good rule of thumb is to consider of 0.0 to 0.3 as weak, 0.3 to 0.7 as moderate, and above 0.7 as strong.
What are scattergrams
- Correlations are plotted on graphs called scattergrams (also called scatter plots or scatter graphs). - A scattergram has one covariable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis, and a straight line that best fits the points is plotted (a line of best fit).
- The gradient of the line is the same as the correlation coefficient.
Strengths and weaknesses of correlational research
Strengths:
- Quick and easy. Correlations are a quick and easy way to see whether or not there is a relationship between two variables that is worth exploring further. If a correlation is found it may be worth investigating why there is a correlation.
- Describes the strength of a relationship. A correlation coefficient is a simple and objective way to describe the strength of a relationship between two variables. Expressing it as a precise number makes it clear and easy to understand.
Weaknesses:
- Correlations do not equal causation. This means that it is impossible to claim that one covariable actually causes the other covariable, as it could be that a third unknown variable (a mediating variable) is causing both variables to change together. It is very difficult to establish cause and effect.
- Correlations can be misused. As finding a correlation between two variables tells us very little other than that a relationship exists, it is very difficult to make accurate conclusions about the causes of the relationship. Media, governments, and even sometimes scientists often make wild claims based on correlations that sound convincing to the public and support an argument, but in reality the relationship could mean something completely different.
