Learning Approaches

Question 1

What are the learning approaches?

Answer 1

Behaviourism and social learning theory

Question 2

What does behaviourism and social learning theory have in common?

Answer 2

assume all our behaviour is learnt and we are born a blank slate

Question 3

Describe behaviourism and state which side it takes for different comparisons

Answer 3

• this can be split into classical and operant conditioning
• the approach considers stimuli in the environment and how they affect a persons responses
• sides with nurture; people are blank slates at birth
• reductionist because experiments look at stimulus/ response
• determinist because behaviour is determined by stimuli
• nomothetic because we share processes for learning behaviour
• it is scientific because objective methods are used.

Question 4

Describe classical conditioning

Answer 4

• we learn through association
• a neutral stimulus begins to elicit a conditioned response
• demonstrated by pavlovs dogs (saliva count), where food is the unconditioned stimulus and the bell is the neutral stimulus

Question 5

Describe operant conditioning

Answer 5

• reinforcement and punishment
• the likelihood that we will carry out a behaviour is based on what we learn about the consequences of that behaviour
• Reinforcement means that behaviour is likely to be repeated (positive reinforcement adds something to increase behaviour and negative reinforcement remove something to increase behaviour)
• Punishment means the behaviour is unlikely to be repeated (positive punishment adds something to decrease behaviour and negative punishment remove something to decrease behaviour)

Question 6

Skinner case study ( behaviourism)

Answer 6

• looked at the behaviour of rats and pigeons (OPERANT CONDITIONING)
• The animals were put in a skinner box and whenever they press the lever they would receive food, or were given an electric shock every time they pressed the lever
• This caused the animals to either press the lever more, or less

Evaluation:
- Controlled conditions so scientific
- Based on animals so may not be applicable to humans
- Application to real life – we use punishment frequently to stop bad behaviour (prisons and schools)
- Ignores our thought processes
- Determinist – ignores free will

Question 7

Describe social learning theory and state what it sides for for each comparison

Answer 7

• behaviour can be learnt through observation and imitation
  – by observing the consequences of behaviour we learn whether to carry out this behaviour in the future or not
• vicarious reinforcement is indirect reinforcing when seeing someone else being reinforced for the same behaviour so we are more likely to imitate it
  – identification is seeing ourselves as similar to someone
• Modelling is what a role model does to show someone else how to do something or it can be what the observer does by copying the role model
• nurture because all behaviour is said to be learnt by observation and imitation
• reductionist because it reduces complex learning to a few processes
• deterministic because behaviour is learnt through experience but we do have some control over what we imitate
• nomothetic as we share processes for learning behaviours
• not scientific as we cannot observe the cognitive element

Question 8

What are the mediational processes involved in the social learning theory

Answer 8

1. Attention - noticing the behaviour and consequences
2. Retention - remembering their behaviour and consequences
3. Motor reproduction – thinking about how to carry out the action (not the action itself)
4. Motivation - wanting to imitate the behaviour ( determined by if the behaviour is reinforced or not)
   

Question 9

Bandura case study (social learning theory)

Answer 9

• bobo doll study
• A large group of children (36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School aged between 3 to 6 years old) were split into three groups: one which had an aggressive role model, one with a non-aggressive role model and one with no role model at all
• The adults attacked the Bobo doll in a distinctive manner – they used a hammer in some cases, and in others threw the doll in the air and shouted “Pow, Boom.”

RESULTS:
- Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.
- The girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physically aggressive responses if the model was male, but more verbally aggressive responses if the model was female. However, the exception to this general pattern was the observation of how often they punched Bobo, and in this case the effects of gender
- The group with an aggressive role model showed aggressive behaviour to the Bobo doll
- overall boys displayed more aggression to the Bobo doll
- found that children imitate adults

Evaluation:
- The boys were more aggressive than the girls so observation can’t be the only reason for aggression
- The social learning theory takes thought processes into account so it’s less simplistic than the behaviourist approach
- Successfully explains lots of behaviours e.g. smoking, role of the media on weight loss
- Application to real life e.g. the restrictions of cigarette and alcohol adverts

Question 10

Describe the cognitive approach and state what it sides with for each comparison

Answer 10

• behaviours occur because of our cognitive processes ( beliefs, thoughts, perceptions)
  – our behaviour is influenced by how we see the world and ourselves (schemas)
  – these schemas are affected by our childhood experiences
  – our mental processes cannot be observed but should still be studied scientifically ( memory, perception etc.)
• the thought processes that occur between a stimulus and response are the important things to consider

theoretical and computer models:
– Information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence (imput, processing, output)
- Computer models assume the mind is similar to a computer
- the brain is a central processing unit and information is coded into a usable format

• both nature and nurture because it States that thought mechanisms are innate but the environment shapes are thought processes and schema
• reductionistic because of machine reductionism
• soft determinism because we have control over our thoughts but schema are affected by past experiences
• nomothetic because processes underlying our thoughts are general to all humans e.g. computer model
• Scientific because lab studies are well controlled but we cannot observe cognitions

Question 11

Describe schemas

Answer 11

• A package of information and knowledge developed through experience
• they help us to process information quickly, simplify complex situations and predict what might happen
  – they can distort our interpretation of sensory information and lead to perceptual errors
• schemas are reinforced because we are predisposed to select familiar experiences
  – schemas can then trigger a behaviour ( surrender, overcompensation or avoidance)

Question 12

Bugelski and alampay case study (cognitive approach)

Answer 12

• psychology students were shown either drawings of faces or animals
  – asked what they thought the final picture was
  – lucy had been previously showed faces were more likely to say man where is those who have been shown animals were more likely to say rat

Evaluation:
– approach is less determinist than other approaches
– it has improved our understanding of a number of psychological abnormalities
– it has contributed to therapies such as CBT which have helped many people
- Machine reductionism – there are similarities between a human mind and a thinking machine (e.g. inputs, outputs, storage systems, The use of essential processor) BUT. Machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation and how this affects information processing e.g. when human memory can be affected by anxiety, especially in eyewitness testimony


Question 13

What are the different comparisons of the approaches

Answer 13

• nature vs nurture
• reductionism / holism
• determinism / free will
• idiographic / nomothetic
• scientific or not

Question 14

Describe the biological approach and state what are sides for for each comparison

Answer 14

• this approach is rooted in the physiology and biology of the body
  – behaviour is affected by genetics, the central nervous system or the chemistry of the body
  – levels of neurotransmitters affect behaviour
• The approach believes that the evolution of human behaviour is developed in the same way as the evolution of physical characteristics, in order to enhance our level of survival e.g. aggressive behaviour can be defensive
• nurture because behaviour is innate but it accepts that the environment does have some influence e.g. genotypes and phenotype
  – very reductionist as it explains behaviour solely in terms of genes and neurochemistry
• hard determinism because behaviour is determined by genes
  – nomothetic as we share common physiology
  – very scientific because measuring observable things such as biochemicals

Question 15

How many chromosomes are we born with

Answer 15

23

Question 16

Genotype definition

Answer 16

A persons genetic make up
This is also determined by an individuals environment

Question 17

Phenotype definition

Answer 17

The way the genotypes are expressed through characteristics

Question 18

Nestdadt et al study (biological approach)

Answer 18

• monozygotic twins identical and dizygotic twins are non-identical
  – concordance rate is the rate of agreement of behaviours
• nestdadt et al reviewed previous twin studies of OCD
• Monozygotic twins had concordance rates of 68% and dizygotic twins shared concordance rates of 31%

EVALUATION
– monozygotic twins shared more of the behaviours observed and also share the same genes so the study supports the biological approach as it proves that genes cause certain behaviours
- but it can’t be generalised as there are other factors present proven by the fact concordance rates for mono zygotic twins were not 100% although the jeans are 100% similar
Dash also monozygotic twins are treated the same as they look the same and all the same gender but dizygotic twins or not e.g. different genders may cause different levels of cleanliness
-Technology means we can accurately measure processes making the data reliable
– drug treatments target the biological bases of disorders and are very effective
– is very reductionist
- it is determinist because if it were true, The criminal system would be based on biological factors and people would not be blamed for committing crimes

Question 19

Describe the psychodynamic approach and state what side it is on for each comparison

Answer 19

– Our behaviour reflects the interactions between the conscious and subconscious mind
- emphasis on early childhood
- our personality is made up of three elements: The id, The ego, the superego – this is called the tripartite psyche
- to protect ourselves when there is a conflict between these elements, we use ego defence mechanisms – repression, displacement, denial
– we go through different stages of psychosexual development, if we are deprived or over gratified during a particular stage it can affect us in adulthood
– both nature and nurture because they’re in eight drives (Id), but parenting style affects formation of other elements of personality
– holistic as it sees us as complex driven by a number of unconscious forces
- deterministic because behaviour is controlled by an “conscious forces over which we have no control
- both nomothetic, because we all have innate drives, and idiographic, because of our unique child affects on behaviour
- very unscientific

Question 20

Describe the three parts of the tri-party psyche Stated in the psychodynamic approach

Answer 20

• id: this is based on the pleasure principle and his present from birth. It wants everything now and has no morals
  – ego: This is our conscious self. It develops during early childhood ( 2 years). The ego tries to balance the id and super ego. Operates on the reality principle – balancing advance of the real world against the drives of the id.
• Superego: this is our conscience – it is the opposite to the edge as it operates on the morality principle - it doesn’t care about your happiness as it is guilt driven. It develops in later childhood of about five years when we identify with the moral attitudes of same-sex parent.

Question 21

Describe the ego defence mechanisms implied in the psychodynamic approach

Answer 21

• when these are unsuccessful then the anxiety caused by the conflict between the tripartite psychic could be known as a clinical disorder
  – repression: Pushing unwonted memories, emotions into the unconscious mind
  – denial: Refusing to accept the truth
  – displacement: The feeling is expressed towards a substitute rather than the initial target because it is unacceptable to have that feeling towards the initial target

Question 22

What are the different psychosexual stages as shown in the psychodynamic approach

Answer 22

• oral stage – 0 to 1 years – the mouth is the focus of pleasure e.g. breastfeeding, tasting, sucking
  Fixation at this stage can lead to an adult smoking, over eating, drinking excessively, or being needy
  – anal stage – 1 to 3 years – defecation is the main source of pleasure. This is the first time an infant has some control, as they can show obedience or not by expelling or attaining faeces.
  Fixation can lead to an obsession with hygiene
• phallic stage – 3 to 5 years – pleasure comes from genital stimulation. Development difference between the sexes at this stage and is an important stage for gender development. The main features of the this stage of the Oedipus complex and the Electra complex.
  Fixation can lead to narcissism
  OEDIPUS COMPLEX:
• boys focus on the mother as the primary love objects and they desire the mother
  – they see the father as a rival and want him out of the way. This leads to a fear that the father will find out and castrate the boy as punishment – castration anxiety.
  – To deal with this the Boy presses his feelings for the mother, identifies with the father and internalises has more views – development of the superego.
  ELECTRA COMPLEX:
• girls also desire their mothers
  – girls realise they don’t have a penis and develop penis envy
  – develops affection for the fathers the penis is the primary love object
  – she becomes Hostad towards the mother and sees her as a love rival
  – eventually she resolves feelings towards her mother because she replaces the desire for the father with a desire for a baby
  – she identifies with a mother and internalises her more of you – development of the superego.
• Latency stage: 6 years to puberty - calm period before purity – earlier conflicts are oppressed in the subconscious mind
  – genital stage: puberty into adulthood – there is a focus on the genitals but not as much as a phallic stage. Attempt to develop healthy adult relationships.
  Fixation can lead to a difficulty forming adult relationships

Question 23

Little Hans (psychodynamic approach)

Answer 23

• Little hands had a phobia of horses biting him, Especially horses with black bits around their mouths who were wearing blinkers
  – he had A habit of climbing into his parents bed in the morning even though his father objected to this
  – his father had a black moustache and wore spectacles
  – this supports the phallic stage, Oedipus complex and displacement

EVALUATION
– Unrepresentative – just one person and fathers memory is subjective
– Influential – dominant approach for the first half of the 20th century
- largely based on case studies of middle-class women
– impossible to test using scientific methods
– practical application as psychoanalysis has helped a number of patients

Question 24

Describe the humanistic approach and state what it states for each comparison

Answer 24

• focuses on the self – emphasises the importance of subjective experiences, three will, self actualisation
• the approach also states the hierarchy of needs and conditions of worth
• it does not believe the nature nurture debate is valid as it tries to generalise but we are all individuals. Innate drive to achieve self actualisation but environment can affect that process
• holistic – everybody’s complex unique individuals
  – free will – we choose our own path in life and have control over our behaviour
  – ideographic as we are all individuals
  – does not believe scientific measures are appropriate for human behaviour

Question 25

What is the idea of self actualisation as stated in the humanistic approach

Answer 25

– self actualisation – we have an innate drive to achieve a full potential and when we achieve this it is called self actualisation. This is unique to each person.
- Self: There are three selves and to achieve self actualisation these selves must be similar:
1. The self-concept – is how you see yourself
2. The ideal self – is the self you want to be
3. The real self – is the self you actually are
– congruence is achieved when the three cells are the same. This is difficult to achieve and many people do not achieve self actualisation

Question 26

Describe the hierarchy of needs as stated in the humanistic approach

Answer 26

• there are five types of needs we must fill in order to achieve self actualisation – from bottom to top – physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self actualisation
• you cannot move onto a further stage until you have fulfilled the current types of needs
  – self actualisation is not permanent

Question 27

Describe the conditions of worth as stated in the humanistic approach

Answer 27

• to chief self actualisation we must exclude unconditional positive regard
  – conditional love/regard to prevent a person from Achieving self actualisation

Question 28

Evaluate the humanistic approach

Answer 28

• client centred therapy is very effective – the client discovers their own solutions in a supportive and nonjudgemental environment. The therapist must make the client feel exception accepted (unconditional positive regard) and the client feels comfortable being honest and is able to discover the barriers that prevent them from being congruent. However this is not as useful as others such as CBT
  – the hierarchy of needs is cultures specific, as it focuses on the self rather than the group and so it’s not applicable to both individualist and collectivist cultures – only individualist cultures
  – it is not reductionist so may be more valid than other approaches
• It is very unscientific as the humanist approach is anti-scientific or does not think people can be tested using scientific methods
  

Question 29

Inference def

Answer 29

a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning.

Question 30

Describe Pavlov’s dogs experiment

Answer 30

• Pavlov performed a famous set of experiments on dogs that demonstrated classical conditioning. - By the end of the experiment, the dogs paired a tone with meat powder and began to salivate when they heard a tone, which is a stimulus that previously wouldn’t have elicited a response.

PROCESS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
1) The meat powder in this situation was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). The dogs’ salivation was an unconditioned response (UCR).
2) Pavlov would sound a tone (like ringing a bell) and then give the dogs the meat powder.
The tone was the neutral stimulus (NS).
3) When Pavlov paired the tone with the meat powder repeatedly, the previously neutral stimulus (the tone) also made the dogs salivate.
The neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS).
Eventually, the dogs began to salivate to the tone alone.
4) In the case of Pavlov’s dogs, they had learned to associate the tone (CS) with being fed. They began to salivate in anticipation of food when they heard the tone, making salivation the conditioned response (CR).

Question 31

Evaluate Pavlov’s dogs

Answer 31

• Pavlov’s research provides powerful explanations for the development of a variety of behaviours including psychological disorders. It also provides useful counter conditioning treatments, including systematic desensitisation (used to extinguish phobia’s such as that of ‘little Albert’).
• The use of animals is a criticism of Pavlov’s research. Although conditioning can be observed in dogs and most species, human behaviour is driven by complex emotions and thought processes. This means that it is impossible for all these processes to be observed. Although there is supporting evidence, like little Albert, generalising and applying the findings of dogs to humans is still very difficult. Therefore, generalisations between humans and animals must be made with caution. Whilst conditioning may be useful in explaining animal behaviour, it may not be very useful in explaining learning in humans.
• Classical conditioning is limited to explaining how reflex responses become associated with new stimuli. However, much human behaviour is voluntary and therefore cannot be explained by Classical Conditioning. There must be other learning processes involved. It also ignores the role of cognitive and biological factors which have also been shown to play a role in learning.

Question 32

Describe the origins of psychology

Answer 32

WILHELM WUNDT:
believed that all aspects of nature including the human mind could be studied scientifically
– he studied only those aspects of behaviour that could be strictly controlled under experimental conditions e.g reaction time
– his aim was to study the structure of the human mind
– he used introspection
– eventually realised that higher mental processes such as learning ,language and emotions could not be studied in a controlled manner

INTROSPECTION:
– introspective ability enables the observation of our inner world
– Wundt suggested that with training mental processes such as memory and perception could be observed systemically as they occurred using introspection e.g observing an object and being asked to reflect on how they perceive it
-In Wundt’s participants were given a carefully controlled stimuli e.g visual images or auditory tones) and then were asked to provide a description of their inner processes .This made it possible to compare the results in response to the same stimuli and so establish theories on perception

Question 33

Describe the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 33

– empiricists believe that knowledge comes from observation and experience alone.
– behaviour is seen as being caused( the assumption of determinism)
-if behaviour is determined than it is possible to predict how human beings will behave in different conditions( the assumption of predictability)
– the technique used to explore these assumptions became known as scientific method

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
– the use of investigative methods that are objective systematic and replicable
– it is objective as researchers do not let biases influence data collection
– it is systematic as observations or experiments are carried out in an orderly way
– recording of data is carried out accurately and and other factors that influence results are considered
– it is replicable as observations can be repeated by other researchers to see if the same results are obtained,improving the reliability of the results
-The development of scientific theories and the constant testing and refining of these theories to further observations completes the scientific cycle

Question 34

Evaluate the origins of psychology/ the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 34

Wundt’s methods were unreliable- Behaviourists criticised that his approach was based on non observable responses.Although participants reported on their conscious experiences, the processes of memory or perception were considered to be unobservable constructions.There was a lack of reliability in his methods and his experimental methods were not easily reproducible

Strength of the scientific approach to psychology- as it relies on belief in determinism they are able to establish the causes of behaviour through the use of replicable methods.Also,scientific knowledge is self- corrective as psychologists are always repeating each other’s experiments

Limitations of a scientific approach to psychology- by focusing on controlling observations contrived situations are created that tell us little about how people act in more natural environments.

Question 35

Empiricism def

Answer 35

the belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience it is characterised by the use of scientific method

Question 36

Introspection def

Answer 36

the process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional states as a result of the examination of their conscious thoughts and feelings.

Question 37

Scientific method def

Answer 37

refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective ,systematic and replicable as well as the formulation of testing and modification of hypotheses based off these methods