Research Methods - EXAM Flashcards
What are the steps of the scientific method?
- Identify area of research and formulate an aim 2. Collect information 3. Identify research question and formulate hypothesis 4. Design research method to test hypothesis 5. Collect and analyse data 6. Draw conclusions to accept or reject the hypothesis 7. Report findings 8. Test conclusions
Define:
- Population and provide an example
- Sample and provide an example
- Construction of research hypotheses
- IV
- DV
Population: The group of people about which we wish to draw conclusions.
For example: 50 psychology students from the local high school –> Population = VCE PSYCH STUDENTS.
Sample: The members of the population that have been chosen to take part in research.
For example: Blue eyed males will have a low IQ –> Sample = 100 blue eyed males.
Construction of research hypotheses: It is hypothesised that.. Must include, IPAD (IV, population and affect on DV)
Independent Variable: Deliberately manipulated or varied in some way by the experimenter (cause).
Dependent Variable: The property that is measured in the research (effect).
Define:
- Extraneous Variables and provide 4 examples
- Confounding Variables and provide an example
- Operationalizing variables
Extraneous Variables: A variable other than the IV that can cause changes in the value of the DV, these are undesirable.
- Experimenter Variables*
- health - personality issues - tiredness - expectations
- Participant Variables*
- mood - motivation - emotional state - intelligence - cultural background
- Situational variables*
- air temperature - time of day - background noise - testing venue - conditions of venue
Confounding Variables: A variable other than the IV that has a systematic effect on the value of the DV (it acts like a second, unwanted, IV) You can’t control this.
For Example: Religion, learning disabilities, sight problems etc.
Operationalizing variables: refers to how you will define and measure a specific variable as it is used in your study.
- Therefore, you could state that “media violence” is operationally defined as ‘exposure to a 15 minute film showing scenes of physical assault’; “aggression” is operationally defined as ‘levels of electrical shocks administered to a second ‘participant’ in another room’.
- In another example, the hypothesis “Young participants will have significantly better memories than old participants” is not operationalized. How do we define “young”, “old” or “memory”? “Participants aged between 16 - 30 will recall significantly more nouns from a list if twenty than participants aged between 55 - 70” is operationalized.
Controlling Extraneous Variables and Bias
Participants
Procedure
Design
Data Collection
Participants = Participant variables
to control: different group design
Procedure = Experimenter effects
to control: Standardised procedures
Design = Order / Placebos/ Participant /Experimenter effects
to control: Counterbalancing Independent groups Double or single blind
Data Collection = Bias/distraction/confusion
to control: Standardised Procedures
Types of Standardisation
Non-standardised instructions and procedures
The condition of the environment is not equal for everybody; therefore everyone needs to be treated the same way.
Example - Giving inconsistent amounts of sugar to participants.
Ways of minimizing - Using standardized instructions and procedures.
Standardised instructions and Procedures
The system of using the same words, actions and materials despite being administered by different researchers. A process of eliminating possible confounds.
Test standardisation
Where administration of a test is uniform for all examinees at any given time or setting.
Explain the Placebo, Order and Experimenter effects and an example
also include single and double blind procedures
Placebo Effect
Refers to the participants behaviour being influenced by their expectations of how they should behave, caused by the belief that they have received some treatment.
- Giving people a sleeping pill that does nothing, and tell them that it will help them, they will believe and then fall asleep easier.
Single-blind procedure
An experimental design in which either the participants or the researcher does not know which participants are in the experimental or control groups.
Experimenter Effect
The outcome of an experiment being unintentionally (or even intentionally) influenced by the experimenter.
- Smiling when the participant is getting results that support your hypothesis.
Double-blind procedure
An experimental design that ensures that neither researcher nor participants are aware of which participants are in the control or experimental group. This eliminates both experimenter and participant expectations as possible confounding variables.
Order effect
Changes in results caused by the sequence of performing tasks in a test; often ascribed to practice- or boredom-effects.
Explain the Experimental Designs and ADV and DIS
Repeated Measure: Each participant is part of both the E-group and C-group.
Advantages: Using the same participants as both groups means that participant variables will be eliminated.
Disadvantages: Repeated measure procedures take more time therefore dropouts are more likely. Fatigue / practice etc
Matched Participants: Enables researcher to identify a variable that is likely confound, and to eliminate the effects of this variable form the experiment.
Advantages: The variable on which the participants are matched will not influence the results because its effect will be the same in both groups.
Disadvantages: Very time consuming, if one pair drops out the data is no use.
Independent groups: Allocated participants to the E and C group at random.
Advantages: The independent groups procedure can all be done at once and dropouts are unlikely
Disadvantages: Need a large number of participants to ensure the spread of participant variables in the sample will match the spread in the population.
Explain the Sampling Procedures
Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of selection.
ADV: Gives representative sample as participant variables spread in same proportion as in population
DIS: Difficult to achieve as the larger the population, the harder it is to list all individuals
EG: Names in a hat (first 50)
Stratified Sampling: Dividing population into categories and selecting in proportions equivalent to population.
ADV: Eliminates the effect of the variable on which the sample is stratified.
DIS: Time-consuming; expensive
EG: Age or religion
Convenience Sampling: Picking whoever is available at the time.
ADV: Quick, easy, cheap
DIS: Bias in sample
EG: First 50 people to walk into Coles
Stratified Random Sampling: Identifying all of the people within each stratum of research interest, then randomly selecting samples of proportionate size from within each stratum.
ADV: Minimising sample selection bias and ensuring that the population is not over or under represented.
DIS: Unusable when researchers cannot confidently classify every member of the population into a subgroup.
EG: Undergrad and postgrad students divided up in male vs. female and then put into percentages
Define:
- Control Group
- Experimental Group
Control Groups: the group of research participants, which are not exposed to the variations in the IV. These results are compared to the experimental group so that the effects of the IV can be determined.
Experimental Groups: The group of research participants, which are exposed to the IV. These results are compared to the control group so that the effects of the IV can be determined.
Define:
random allocation
Counterbalancing
Random allocation: means that all participants who have been selected for an experiment must have an equal chance of being in E-group or C-group.
Counterbalancing: systematically changing the order of treatments or tasks for participants in a ‘balanced’ way to counter the unwanted effects on performance of any one order.
Researcher recognises order effect is potential confounding variable.
Between-participants counterbalancing: procedure involves counterbalancing the order in which the groups of participants are exposed to the experimental situations
Within-participants counterbalancing: requires each participant to be exposed to the same combination of condition.
Techniques of Data
qualitative and quantitative
subjective and objective
Qualitative: Descriptions of the characteristics of what is being studied.
EG: Emotional Stat, Difficulty of task
Quantitative: Refers to measurements - numerical information about the variables being studied.
EG: Statistical Procedures, Height, speed
Subjective: Based on opinion and there is no external yardstick by which they are measured.
EG: Asking a group of people how much they like maths.
Objective: Measured according to an identifiable external criterion.
EG: On a scale of 1-5 how good is Mr burger.
Methods of Data Collection:
Naturalistic Observation
Controlled Observation
Clinical Interview
Case Study
Self Report
Naturalistic Observation:Observation of voluntary behaviour within the subjects natural environment
- Strength*
- Highly realistic = not designed in a lab
- Does not require co-operation of participants involved.
- Weakness*
- Ethical questions raised (consent) about observational studies, participants may not know they are involved
- Observer bias = distort what they’re seeing
Controlled Observation: Observation of voluntary behaviours within a structured environment such as a lab.
- Strength*
- Control over environment therefore accuracy in observations
- Weakness*
- Participants behaviour may change because of the environment
Clinical Interview: Structured guidelines but further questioning is used for clarification.
- Strength*
- Flexible
- Weakness*
- Rely on the objectivity of the interviewer
Case Study: Intensive, detailed observations of an individual, group or situation over a period of time.
- Strength*
- No manipulation of variables = real life experience
- Weakness*
- Time consuming
- It’s only based on one person so it cannot be generalised to the population.
Self-Report: Participant’s written or spoken responses to questions, statements or instructions presented by the researcher. (Surveys, maybe question and answer, response to Likert-type scales)
- Strength*
- Easy to replicate
- Guarantees anonymity
- Weakness*
- Rely on participants giving accurate and reliable answers
Statistics and Measures of Central Tendency:
Mean, Median, Mode, Range, Variance, Standard Deviation
Mean: The average of all the scores.
Median: The score exactly halfway between the lowest and highest.
Mode: The most commonly occurring score.
Range: Difference between the highest score and the lowest score in the dataset.
Variance: A measure of how much each score in the data set differ from the mean.
Standard Deviation: On average how much the scores differ from the mean.
Define:
p-value
conclusions
generalisations
P-Value: The probability that the difference in results is due to a real difference caused by the IV not chance alone, p ≤ 0.05.
IF P IS 0.05 OR LESS THEN
- Hypothesis is supported
- Statistically supported
- Not by chance
- This means there is a less than 5 in 100 likelihood of results being due to chance
IF P IS MORE THEN 0.05
- Hypothesis is not supported
- Not statistically significant
- By chance
Eg: 92% occurred by chance therefore 4% didn’t therefore this is not supported
Eg: 97% chance that the results occurred not by chance therefore is supported
Conclusions: In research refers to a statement of acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis tested.
Generalisations: A judgement about the extent to which the research findings can be applied to the population represented by the sample.
- The sample must represent the population of interest
- Must be statistically significant
- The confounding variables/extraneous variables must have been controlled
Ethical principles and professional conduct:
The role of the experimenter: The researcher must always act in a professional manner, making sure that the best interests of the participant and society are met.
Confidentiality: Results and identities will remain confidential.
Withdrawal Rights: Participants can withdrawal at any time in the study during and after the study has been completed.
Informed Consent: Consent must be given in writing and the participant must be made aware of all procedures involved.
Voluntary Participation: Not forced in anyway to participate, the participants have the right to refuse to take part in the study.
Deception: Only allowed if the results would be confounded if participants knew too much information, they must be debriefed when study is over.
Debriefing: All procedures and results must be discussed with participates after research is completed.
Participant Rights: Researchers must have respect for the participants.
