Learning

Question 1

What is learning?

Answer 1

A relatively permanent change in behaviour and thinking as the result of experience with the environment.

Question 2

PRE PROGRAMED BEHAVIOUR

Behaviours not dependent on learning:

Answer 2

Reflex action : Reflex actions are automatic, involuntary responses that do not require prior experience. Reflexes are adaptive for survival, meaning that we would be in danger if we did not have these built-in mechanisms to help protect us from environmental hazards.

For example, we do not even think about whether to blink when an object comes near our eyes.

Fixed action pattern: A fixed action pattern is an inborn predisposition to behave in a certain way when appropriately stimulated by environmental stimuli. This type of behaviour is also referred to as instinctive behaviour or species-specific behaviour. It is distinguished from reflex action patterns in two important ways:

1. These behaviours are not simple; instead, they are complex behaviours
2. These behaviours are unique to a particular species of animal.

For example, a male bowerbird creates a mound of twigs and coloured objects to attract a female.

Maturation: Some behaviours require the development of the body and the structures of the nervous system.

For example, walking, talking or toilet training.

Question 3

NEURAL BASIS OF LEARNING

Brain structures involved in learning and memory:

Hippocampus

Amygdala

Cerebral Cortex

Cerebellum

Ventral Tegmental Area

Answer 3

Hippocampus: The hippocampus plays a central role in the process of learning. Learning new information that will become declarative memory typically involves an interaction between the hippocampus and relevant areas of the cortex that specialise in storing declarative-type information, such as the occipital lobe for visual memory of written words.

Effect of Damage on ability to Learn: Damage to both their left and right hippocampi are able to feel the emotion of fear when they experience pain from a stimulus (for example, an electric shock). However, they are unable to learn or remember to be fearful the next time they experience a situation in which they will receive the electric shock again.

Amygdala:The amygdala has a role in emotional learning – in learning to associate fear with a new unpleasant stimulus. This makes the amygdala essential for an organism’s survival. The amygdala also has a role in learning because it can strengthen the learning of information that will become declarative memory if that memory is associated with positive or negative emotions. Stimulation of the amygdala activates the hippocampus and, in humans, learning and memory for pleasant and unpleasant emotional information is linked to the amount of activity in the amygdala when the learning occurs.

Effect of Damage on ability to Learn: Humans with damage to their amygdala are unable to be classically conditioned (to learn) to fear a dangerous object (stimulus), even if they know that every time a bell sounds they will receive a shock.

Cerebral Cortex: Many areas of the lobes of the cerebral cortex are involved in learning and memory storage. One key area is the basal ganglia, in the frontal lobes, which use information from the primary and secondary motor areas of the frontal lobes, as well as from the somatosensory cortex, to integrate and smooth bodily movements.

Effect of Damage on ability to Learn: People who suffer from diseases that damage the basal ganglia, such as Parkinson’s or Huntington’s disease, have great difficulty learning to do tasks that result in non-declarative memory, such as learning skills that result in procedural memory.

Cerebellum: The cerebellum is located in the hindbrain and plays a role in the order of muscular movement, balance and posture. It is also necessary for learning motor skills, as well as contributing to non-motor learning. The cerebellum and basal ganglia work together in learning movement sequences so that the movements can be carried out together.

Ventral Tegmental Area: The ventral tegmental area is located in the midbrain and is thought to have a role in learning through operant conditioning. In particular, it plays a role in the rewarding effects of primary reinforcers in operant conditioning.

Question 4

Changes that take place in the brain during adolescence

Answer 4

REFER TO PIC

Question 5

Explain and draw the processes involve in learning:

Answer 5

During learning, the axon terminals (terminal buttons) of the presynaptic neuron release a neurotransmitter called glutamate into the synaptic gap between the presynaptic neuron and the dendrites of a neighbouring postsynaptic neuron. As the process of learning new information or a new skill is acquired, the neurons form new connections with each other. As a result of learning, there is a strengthening of the neural pathway between neurons. This enables the newly learnt information to be transferred from one neuron to the next more efficiently.

Question 6

Neural pathways, Synaptogenesis, Synapse, Filigree appendages, Dendritic spines, Neurotransmitters, Glutamate, Dopamine

Answer 6

Neural pathways

The process of synapse formation during learning involves either the creation of new neural pathways or the strengthening of existing neural pathways. A neural pathway (also referred to as a neural tract) is a bundle of myelin-covered neurons (white matter) that provide a connection between one part of the nervous system and another.

Synaptogenesis

When learning takes place (and depending on the type of learning), existing synapses are sometimes moulded or new synapses are formed (synaptogenesis). Synaptogenesis is particularly evident during early childhood but it is also evident in parts of an adult brain.

Synapse

Between neurons is a synapse. This is the junction between two neurons where the end of the axon (terminal buttons) of the presynaptic (before the synapse) neuron comes into close proximity with the receptor sites on the dendrites of a postsynaptic (after the synapse) neuron.

Filigree appendages

This means that new ‘sprouts’, called filigree appendages, begin to grow from the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron towards the dendrites of neighbouring postsynaptic neurons.

Dendritic spines

With the release of dopamine, the neuron prompts growth in the postsynaptic neuron of an increased number of dendritic spines. Dendritic spines are outgrowths from the dendrites in the synaptic gap. These make the postsynaptic neuron more sensitive to future firing by other neighbouring presynaptic neurons.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that help the communication across nerve synapses.

Glutamate

Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain for learning. When glutamate is released by the presynaptic neuron, it acts on two types of glutamate receptors in the postsynaptic neuron: the AMPA receptor that activates the postsynaptic neuron and the NMDA receptor that produces long-lasting modifications to the synapse.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter released when the reward pathway in the brain is activated. Stimulates feelings of euphoria and pleasure.

Question 7

Plasticity:

Developmental plasticity:

ADAPTIVE PLASTICITY

Answer 7

Plasticity: The brain is capable of learning throughout the lifespan because of its plasticity. Plasticity of the brain refers to the way it changes in response to stimulation from the environment. The process of plasticity occurs at the synaptic connections in the brain.

Developmental plasticity: The ability of synapses to be modified as an infant or child.

Adaptive plasticity: Where the brain changes and develops as a result of new experiences. These parts of the brain can be shaped by learning and experience. Adaptive plasticity enables older brains to be modified through experience or learning. Adult humans continue to develop synapses as a result of their experiences; stimulating experiences and environment shape the construction and remodelling of a person’s brain throughout life.

Question 8

Stage in developmental plasticity

Answer 8

Proliferation

Process whereby the unborn baby’s cells that will become neurons divide and multiply, creating approximately 250 000 cells per minute.

Migration

Newly formed neurons move outward to their destined location.

Circuit formation

Occurs when the axons of new neurons grow out to target cells and form synapses with them.

Circuit pruning

Circuit pruning involves the elimination of excess neurons and synapses; that is, those which have not established a connection with a target cell die. The nervous system also refines itself by eliminating excessive synapses and strengthening or weakening synapses according to whether their presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons fire together.

Myelination

Process where the axons of the neurons in the child’s brain become covered in myelin, is the final stage that needs to happen for a brain to become fully mature. Myelin is a white, fatty, waxy substance that coats some axons and protects them from electrical interference from other neurons. Myelin speeds up the rate of transmission of signals within the neuron.

Question 9

1. What is meant by the term ‘pruning’ in the development of neurons in children and adults?
2. Explain what happens during the myelination process.
3. What determines how well information is learned?

Answer 9

1. Pruning occurs during infancy and childhood but there is a second wave of pruning in early adolescence.
2. The lower structures of the brain are the first to be myelinated. This is followed by the cerebral hemispheres, where myelination begins at the occipital lobes, followed by the temporal and parietal lobes and, finally, the frontal lobes. The frontal lobe of the left hemisphere is the very last part of the brain to undergo this process.
3. As a result of learning, there is a strengthening of the neural pathway between neurons. This enables the newly learnt information to be transferred from one neuron to the next more efficiently.

Question 10

1. What happens when a new neural connection is not frequently activated?
2. Why can children recover from brain damage quicker than adults?
3. What is the relationship between adaptive plasticity and brain injuries?
4. What happens to the grey matter of your brain during adolescence?

Answer 10

1. The more that a particular neural pathway is activated during learning, the more likely it is to be strengthened, and the less likely the learning will be forgotten.
2. Children’s brains are more plastic and have a better plasticity and therefore can recover quicker compared to an adult.
3. Your brain finds a new neural pathway to remodel how your brain used to function or finds a new area to compensate for the loss of functioning.
4. During early adolescence, there is a second burst of production of cortical grey matter. Cortical grey matter is the covering of the cerebral hemispheres – it looks grey in colour because the axons do not have myelin covering them.

Question 11

Timing of experiences

Sensitive Periods:

Experience-dependent learning

Experience-expectant learning

Critical Periods:

Answer 11

Sensitive Periods: Periods in time which are particularly suited to learning things due to the nature of the brain.

Experience-expectant learning: Depends on being exposed to an experience at any time during a person’s life. EG: Reading and writing in a different language or reading music.

Experience-dependent learning: Occurs mostly in infancy and early childhood. It is when the brain encounters an experience at the expected best/optimum time. If there is no exposure the brain may not develop as it should. EG: Languages - speaking French and rolling your R’s.

Critical Periods: Narrow period of time in an animal’s development when it must have a certain experience to ensure specific learning.

Question 12

CLASSICAL CONDITIOINING - IAN PAVLOV

DEFINE AND EXPLAIN THE EXPERIMENT

Answer 12

Classical Conditioning: A form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus causes a response by repeated association with a stimulus that automatically causes a response.

Pavlov’s Experiment

Pavlov hypothesised that the dogs had associated the footsteps of the laboratory technician / bell in the presence that food that was given to them thus the sound had been conditioned them to cause the response of salivation.
He found that the dogs began salivating before being presented with the food once hearing a bell.
He concluded that the dogs had learnt to associate the food with a neutral stimulus and thus had now become the trigger for the reflex action and was conditioned.

Question 13

DESCRIBE AND EXPLAIN THE ELEMENTS IN CC

Answer 13

Neutral stimulus (NS)

The name given to the conditioned stimulus before it becomes conditioned. It is referred to as a neutral stimulus while it fails to produce a response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Behaviour that occurs naturally due to a given stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits the response produced by the unconditioned stimulus itself.

Conditioned response (CR)

Learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.

Question 14

Pavlov’s research with dogs: using cc

Answer 14

Question 15

Processes in classical conditioning:

Answer 15

Extinction

When a response no longer occurs. Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented several times after the unconditioned stimulus has been withdrawn.

EG ; Dog doesn’t salivate to the bell and the response no longer occurs.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period.

EG ; Bell rings after several days and the dog freaks out because it thinks food is coming back.

Stimulus generalisation

When an organism responds to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus.

EG ; Salivate at a bell but not a door bell, you can tell the difference.

Stimulus discrimination

When an organism responds to the conditioned stimulus but not to any stimulus which is similar to the conditioned stimulus.

EG ; Hears a door bell thinks it’s the same bell and then salivates.

Question 16

SIMPLE BEHAVIOUR (CONDITIONED REFLEXES)

COMPLEX BEHAVIOURS (PHOBIAS)

Graduated exposure:

Flooding:

Aversion therapy:

Answer 16

SIMPLE BEHAVIOUR (CONDITIONED REFLEXES)

Any mother who has breastfed her baby will tell you about this response: when it is approaching feeding time and she hears or sees her baby, the breast milk will be suddenly ‘let down’ and start to flow from her.

COMPLEX BEHAVIOURS (PHOBIAS)

Phobias are intense, irrational and persistent fears of specific objects or situations. These are often acquired by classical conditioning.

Graduated exposure: This therapy involves the person being taught relaxation techniques followed by the gradual exposure to the feared object or animal over several sessions.

EG - A person with a phobia of snakes, will be taught relaxation techniques such as breathing relaxation or progressive muscle relaxation that they will use during the course of their treatment. The psychologist begins by showing a drawing of a snake and giving the person time to practise using the relaxation technique to control their fear. Over the next few sessions, the person will eventually be exposed to increasingly frightening snake-related stimuli and will use the relaxation technique to reduce the level of arousal. The aim is to make the patient’s response rational and at a reasonable level.

Flooding: Flooding uses actual exposure to the feared stimulus at a level greater than usual. Under controlled conditions, a patient is placed in contact with the stimulus that provoked the original trauma. The therapist helps the patient use relaxation techniques in order to calm themselves. The theory, of course, is that the patient comes to associate a relaxation response with the objects that previously caused fear. This is not a commonly used technique. Careful control is needed to ensure that there are no ill-effects.

Aversion therapy: When a person with an unwanted behaviour learns to associate the unwanted behaviour with an unpleasant event.

EG - In order to get you to stop biting your fingernails, a substance that tastes very bitter might be painted on your fingers so that every time you bite your nails, you taste something horrible. In theory, this repeated association between the unwanted behaviour and the unpleasant tasting substance will stop you from biting your nails.

Question 17

LITTLE ALBERT - JOHN WATSON

What was the study?

Identify ethics breached?

How does stimulus generalisation occur?

Answer 17

What was the study?

Little Albert was exposed to a white lab rat to which he was able to touch and play with the rat and showed no fear. Watson & Raynor then made a loud banging noise behind Albert whenever the rat was presented. This noise made Albert cry and be fearful of the noise. Albert associated the loud noise with the white lab rat. He would become distressed and cry whenever the rat was presented (without the loud noise).

Identify ethics breached?

No harm principle
Confidentiality
Debriefing
Extinguished the response
Beneficence by causing distress to Little Albert that was out of proportions and to no gain of the study.

How does stimulus generalisation occur?

When little Albert was shown an animal he generalised it to all animals and some objects.

Question 18

USING CC EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OF LITTLE ALBERT

Answer 18

Question 19

TRIAL AND ERROR - EDWARD THORNDIKE

What is trial and error learning?

Who was Edward Thorndike and explain his puzzle box:

What were the findings form the puzzle box research?

Explain the three laws that maximise learning:

Explain the law of readiness:

Answer 19

What is trial and error learning?

A type of learning where one response after another is tried and rejected until eventually a successful response is made.

Who was Edward Thorndike and explain his puzzle box:

Edward Thorndike was teaching cats to escape from a ‘puzzle box’ in New York. Thorndike placed a hungry cat in a ‘puzzle box’ with a plate of food outside the box. The cat was keen to escape but the only way out of the box was to pull a string that opened the door. After making random movements attempting to escape (trial-and-error), the cat eventually pulled the string and was rewarded by being able to eat the food. When the cat became hungry again, Thorndike put it back in the box with the food outside and again timed how long it took the cat to escape. He repeated this many times.

What were the findings form the puzzle box research?

Looking at the results, we can see that there was no sudden drop in the time taken to escape: in trial 11 it took over eight for the cat to escape although trial 1 took less than three minutes. Instead, the average reduction in time taken was gradual as trial and error learning took place.

Explain the three laws that maximise learning:

1. The ‘law of effect’ that states that behaviour becomes controlled by its consequences – if it feels good, we do it again; if it feels bad (or has no outcome at all), we don’t.
2. The ‘law of recency’ that states that the most recent response is the one with the greatest effect.
3. The ‘law of exercise’ that states that stimulus-response connections are strengthened through repetition and weakened when there is no repetition.

Explain the law of readiness:

When someone is ready to perform an act, performing it gives satisfaction (positive outcome)
When someone is ready to perform some act, to fail to do so causes frustration (negative outcome)
When someone is not ready to perform some act but is forced to do so, it causes frustration (negative outcome)

Question 20

OPERANT CONDITIONING - BF SKINNER

What did Skinner do?

What is operant conditioning?

Explain the 3 PHASE MODEL/DBC/ABC model:

Features in the Skinner box:

Answer 20

What did Skinner do?

He trained the animals to perform certain behaviours by simply rewarding them with food if they performed the behaviour; after only a few training trials, the animal would perform the behaviour every time. Skinner called this type of learning operant conditioning because animals and people learn to operate on their environment to produce desired consequences.

What is operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which behaviour becomes controlled by its consequences. Its voluntary.

Explain the 3 PHASE MODEL/DBC/ABC model:

For operant conditioning to occur the conditions needed to be right.
The Discriminative stimulus / Antecedent condition the environment that makes conditions right and leads to the Behaviour and reinforced by its Consequences.
Skinner described the discriminative stimulus as the condition that influences behaviour by predicting the likely outcome of a behaviour.
Eg. When a guy wants to ask a girl out on a date, if she has smiled at him, laughed with him and her body language generally has shown encouragement, he will be more likely to show the behaviour (asking) that will lead to the consequence (accepting the invitation).

Features in the Skinner box:

A means of giving a signal (a light or buzzer)
A means of recording a response (a bar, button, lever or touch pad)
A means of providing a reward (food) or punisher (mild electric shock)
A means of automatically recording that the response had been made (a cumulative recorder).

Question 21

Elements of Operant Conditioning:

Answer 21

Reinforcer: Any stimulus that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response (behaviour).

Positive reinforcer: A reward which strengthens a response by providing a pleasant or satisfying consequence.

For example, if you take a bite of a delicious piece of cake, you are very likely to have another bite.

Negative reinforcer: Removal, reduction, or prevention of an unpleasant stimulus.

For example, if you wake up with a headache and are able to fix it by taking a Panadol, it makes it very likely that you will take Panadol any time you want to get rid of a headache.
Bad experience or feeling that can be fixed and each time you experience the badness you will increase the amount of times you fix it.

Punisher: Any stimulus that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a response (behaviour).

Positive Punishment: A behaviour followed by a negative experience.

For example, a parent slaps at a child who has drawn on his bedroom wall.
Painful experiences

Response cost / negative punishment: A form of punishment that entails something desirable being removed.

For example, being grounded (losing freedom) or having your mobile phone taken away, or being fined for speeding on the roads (losing money).

Question 22

Outline conditions necessary for punishment to be effective:

Outline some possible side effects of punishment:

Answer 22

Outline some possible side effects of punishment:

Frustration, aggression and feelings of helplessness.
Children may resent teachers or parents who have punished them – even if the punishment was fair and appropriate – and the effects on their interpersonal relationships may be wide-ranging and long-lasting.

Outline conditions necessary for punishment to be effective:

Effective punishment needs to be brief, immediate and linked to the undesired behaviour in the mind of the person (or animal) being punished.
It is only effective if a positive behaviour can be developed to replace the ‘bad’ behaviour.
Cannot be for the benefit of the punisher.

Question 23

Schedules of reinforcement

Answer 23

Continuous reinforcement (CRF): when a correct response is reinforced every time it is given. Behaviours are acquired rapidly using this schedule but it has very low resistance to extinction.

EG - every time the dog rolled over correctly you’d give it a biscuit.

Partial reinforcement: when only some correct responses are reinforced. Responses conditioned under partial reinforcement are acquired more slowly but take longer to extinguish than those conditioned using continuous reinforcement

Fixed interval schedule (FI) – reinforcement is delivered after a fixed time period, as long as at least one correct response has been given. Extinction occurs quickly.

EG - Teaching a dog to roll over and every 30 seconds on the dot give it a biscuit.

A person getting paid $15 for every hour they are in the suit.

Fixed ratio schedule (FR) – reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of correct responses. Low resistance to extinction.

EG - Every 4th time dog rolls give it a biscuit.

You get paid for every A+ in psych

Variable interval schedule (VI) – reinforcement takes place on an average of a set time interval but not with regular frequency. High resistance as extinction occurs very slowly.

EG - Teaching a dog to roll over and roughly every 30 seconds, time may vary but on average to be 28 sec, 30 sec, 34 sec, 29 sec etc.

Receiving pocket money for homework on average every 2 weeks.

Variable ratio schedule (VR) – reinforcement takes place on the basis of a set average number of correct responses but is not regular in its occurrence. High resistance, the most resistant of all.

EG - Roughly every 4th time dog rolls give it a biscuit but more likely 3rd time, 5th time etc.

Question 24

1. Explain the key difference(s) between the terms ‘ratio’ and ‘interval’.
2. Explain what is meant by ‘fixed’ and ‘variable’ in terms of a partial reinforcement schedule.
3. Which are the most effective partial reinforcement schedules (hardest to extinguish)? Explain.
4. Which are the less effective reinforcement schedules (the easiest to extinguish)?

Answer 24

Explain the key difference(s) between the terms ‘ratio’ and ‘interval’.

Ratio - number of responses

Interval - time

Explain what is meant by ‘fixed’ and ‘variable’ in terms of a partial reinforcement schedule.

Fixed - Set

Variable - on average

Which are the most effective partial reinforcement schedules (hardest to extinguish)? Explain.

We’ve taught the dog to role how do we stop it? By using variable ratio and variable interval because the dog isn’t 100% sure when the treat is going to come.

Which are the less effective reinforcement schedules (the easiest to extinguish)?

Fixed interval and fixed ration because the dog knows when it is getting a treat.

Question 25

Other elements

Acquisition:

Extinction:

Spontaneous recovery:

Stimulus generalisation:

Stimulus discrimination:

Answer 25

Acquisition: overall process where a specific response or pattern of responses is established.

Extinction: When the conditioned response disappears over time after reinforcement has ceased.

Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period.

Stimulus generalisation: Where a behaviour is elicited as a result of a discriminative stimulus that is similar to the original.

Eg, a dog normally runs to an electric can opener but might come to the blender.

Stimulus discrimination: When an organism learns to know the circumstances under which responses will be reinforced and when they will not.

Eg, dog realises that it will only get food from the tin opener.

Question 26

shapping and animal training

Answer 26

Shaping

Shaping is a procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that gets closer and closer and eventually leads to the desired response or target behaviour. This is also known as the method of successive approximations.

Animal Training

Giving rewards for every successive action towards a desired behaviour.

The procedure for shaping is as follows:

Identify the ‘target’ or desired behaviour
Identify steps that lead from the present behaviour to the target
Reinforce the first step, then do not reinforce until the second is performed, and so on. Once you have the desired behaviour just reward that alone.

For example, imagine you are trying to train your dog to ‘drop’ on command. You might use the following shaping procedure:

Say ‘drop’ and give the dog a treat when he begins to put his haunches on the ground.
Say ‘drop’ but don’t reinforce until his chest touches the ground.
Say ‘drop’ but don’t reinforce until he stays down for 2 seconds.

Increase the time to 4, then 10, then 20 seconds before reinforcement.

Question 27

token economies

Answer 27

Token Economies

A token economy is a form of behaviour modification in which tokens are earned for performing target behaviours and these tokens can be exchanged later for some reinforcer (reward) that is valued by the learner.

Stages:

Identifying behaviours that you want to encourage.

Identifying reinforcers that are positive for the person.
Setting up a system so that the person knows how they can improve their behaviours and obtain a reward.
Designing a chart so that the person can easily see what they have and need to get to obtain the reward.

The reinforcement has to be appropriate for the person. For example you wouldn’t give a diabetic child lollies, rather give them stickers.

Question 28

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING - ALBERT BANDURA

What did Bandura do?

Explain what is meant by social learning:

Define observational learning:

Define Modelling:

Answer 28

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING - ALBERT BANDURA

What did Bandura do?

He conducted a series of experiments on learning by children who watched the behaviour of others. The experiments involved a plastic doll named ‘Bobo’. In the experiments, the children were shown an adult behaving aggressively to a doll. The children were then placed in a room alone with a doll and their behaviour was observed. There was evidence that learning had occurred when the children behaved aggressively to the Bobo dolls just as they had observed the models doing previously.

Explain what is meant by social learning:

The way which people acquire certain behaviours by watching and learning from their role models.

Define observational learning:

A form of social learning where a person learns by watching the behaviour demonstrated by another.

Define Modelling:

When the observer demonstrates the learnt behaviour by imitating it.

Question 29

Outline the four principles of observational learning:

Who are the main sources of models for observational learning?

Describe and explain the steps of observational learning:

Answer 29

Outline the four principles of observational learning:

Learning occurs by observing the behaviour of others and the consequences of those behaviours.
Learning can occur without there being an immediate change in behaviour.
Cognition plays a role in observational learning because the learner has awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments, and these can influence whether the learnt behaviour will be demonstrated.
Observational learning is a link between behaviourist theory of learning (operant conditioning) and cognitive learning theories (latent learning and insight learning).

Who are the main sources of models for observational learning?

Parents, teachers, friends, role models.

Describe and explain the steps of observational learning:

Attention: Attention must be paid to the model’s behaviour and its consequences. COGNITIVE ASPECT
Retention: The learnt behaviour must be stored in memory as a mental representation so that the observed learning can be utilised at a later time. COGNITIVE ASPECT because the memory must be stored and later retrieved to reproduce the behaviour.
Reproduction: The learner must have the physical and intellectual ability to convert these mental representations into actions.
Motivation: The learner must want to imitate the learnt behaviour and be rewarded with the same consequence as the person they are copying.
Reinforcement: When there is the prospect of a positive result for imitating the behaviour, it is likely that the learner will do so. In contrast, if there is a prospect of punishment for reproducing the learnt behaviour, it is less likely that the behaviour will be imitated.

Question 30

Where can reinforcement come from?

What are the role of models in observational learning?

THE NATURE OF THE OBSERVER

Answer 30

Where can reinforcement come from?
Reinforcement for imitating the model’s behaviour can come from several sources:

The model – A parent praises the child for imitating their behaviour.
Third person – The observer might have imitated the behaviour of another person, such as a television personality or leader, but receives praise for the behaviour from a parent or teacher.
Personal – the imitator receives satisfying consequences as a result of imitating the model’s behaviour.
Vicariously – positive consequences received by the model increase the likelihood of the observer imitating the model’s behaviour, whereas negative consequences for the model’s behaviour will decrease the likelihood of the observer imitating the model’s behaviour.

What are the role of models in observational learning?

Different types of models may be involved in observational learning. Models can be:

Live – an actual person demonstrating the behaviour.
Symbolic – a person portrayed in television, video games and computer programs.

Factors that increase the likelihood include similarity of the model to the observer and the relevance, likeability, credibility, attentiveness and prestige of the model.

THE NATURE OF THE OBSERVER

The extent to which the learner will imitate the model’s behaviour will also depend upon the nature of the observer. Learners who lack self-esteem and confidence are more likely to imitate the model.

Question 31

comparison of oc and ol

Answer 31

Question 32

Classical Conditioning / Operant Conditioning / Observational Learning

explain the following

Role of the Learner

Timing of response

Nature of Response

Acquisition (Conditioning State)

Extinction

Stimulus Generalisation

Stimulus Discrimination

Spontaneous Recovery

Answer 32

refer to word doc