Research Methods - education Flashcards
state types of data
sociologists use a wide variety of different research methods and sources to obtain data about society. They can be classified into:
(a) Primary and Secondary data sources
(b) Quantitative and Qualitative data
Explain primary data
Primary data refers to information which was not present before the research began. It is produced by the researcher first-hand during the actual study from questionnaires, interviews, observations etc (using primary research methods)
state one advantage and disadvantage of primary data
- an advantage of using primary data is that sociologists will be able to gather precisely information they need to test hypotheses.
However, one disadvantage would be that primary data can be both time consuming and expensive
Explain Secondary data
Secondary data refers to data which already exists. It includes data from historical records, official statistics, government reports, newspapers, diaries, autobiographies. novels etc
state one advantage and disadvantage of secondary data
one advantage of using secondary data and sources would be that it is a quick and cheap way of doing research
However, one disadvantage would be that it may have been produced for different reasons
explain Quantitative data
Quantitative data refers to information in a numerical form which can be subject to statistical analysis. For example:
- official statistics on how many girls passed five or more GCSEs;
- league table showing a school’s achievement data;
- the proportion of young people from middle class backgrounds who go to university
what is a great strength of quantitative data
Quantitative data is particularly useful for measuring (quantifying) the strength of relationships between different factors/variables. It can be shown as statistics and displayed in pictorial form such as graphs and pie-charts etc
explain qualitative data
Qualitative data refers to all types of data that are not numerical including for example:
- descriptive data from observations from classrooms looking at teacher and pupil interaction;
- quotes from interviews on how black pupils feel they have been labelled;
- written sources on LEA policy;
- a newspaper article assessing the current state of education
- pictures and photographs contrasting grammar school to secondary modern pupils etc
explain a strength of qualitative data
Qualitative data can often provide a richer and more in-depth picture of social life than the statistics provided by quantitative data. It gives you a ‘feel’ for what something is like
what does sociologists usually want their data to be?
validity and reliability
explain validity
validity refers to data is valid if it presents a true. genuine and accurate picture, description or measurement which enables the researcher to get close to the truth. For example, if a sociologist captured in their research how it felt to be labelled negatively by a teacher
explain reliability
reliability refer data is reliable when different researchers using the same methods obtain the same results - it is replicated (a replica). For example, if a number of researchers observed the same set in a school and produced the same description of the pupils behaviour, their results would be seen as being reliable.
explain the difference between validity and reliability in relation to data
The main difference between validity and reliability is that some data may be reliable but not valid. For example, the position of schools in the league table may be based on reliable achievement data, but it may not represent a valid picture of the school, its standard of teaching etc.
State practical issues
- time and money
- funding body
- personal skills and social status
- research opportunity
explain the practical issues of time and money
time and money refers to a different methods require different amounts of time and money and this may influence a sociologists choice:
- For example, large scale surveys may employ dozens of interviewers and data-inputting staff and cost a great deal of money. By contrast, a small scale project involving a lone researcher using participant observation may be cheaper to carry out, but it can take several years.
The researcher’s access to resources can be a major factor in determining what methods researchers employ, as a well-known professor would have access to more resources compared to a young student
explain the practical issue of funding body
Funding body/bodies refer to whoever is funding the research may be in a position to dictate how they want to research to be conducted, what form the results should be in and the duration of the research:
- research institutes businesses and other organisations that provide the funding for research may require the results to be in a particular position
For example, a government department funding reaching educational research may give targets for pass rates and so require qualitative data to see whether these targets are being achieved. This means the sociologist will have to use a method capable of producing such data e.g. questionnaires or structured interviews
explain the practical issue of personal skills and social status
personal skills and social status refers to the sociologist’s own personality and character, as well as their own status may impact on their ability to use different methods .
- For example, participants observation usually requires the ability to mix easily with others, as well as good powers of observation and recall while depth interviews call for an ability to establish a rapport (relationship of empathy and trust) with the interviewee. Not all, sociologists have these qualities and so some may have difficulty using these methods
explain the practical issue of research opportunity
research opportunity refer to when an research opportunity turns up unexpectedly whereas in others it is planned well in advance, this will impact on the suitability of certain methods
This means that may not be possible to use structured methods such as questionnaires which take longer to prepare. For example, a Glasgow gang leader offered the sociologist James Patrick (1973), the chance ‘out of the blue’ to spend time with his gang with little time to prepare, Patrick had no option but to use participation observation . In other circumstances, researchers are usually able to set up the research opportunity carefully beforehand and select their method
define what is meant by rapport
Rapport refers to the ease of a relationship between people and, in the case of sociological research, between a researcher and their subjects. This can be important when it comes to getting people to open up and have the confidence to speak at length or engage in research at all. It is of particular importance with interviews, where sociologists who have the skills to build a good rapport with their interviewees are likely to get richer, more detailed data than those who are unable to break down the formal barriers of an interview situation.
state the various ethical issues
- informed consent
- confidentiality and privacy
- protection
- vulnerable groups
explain the ethical issue of informed consent
Informed consent: research participants should be given the opportunity to agree or refuse to participate in research. The decision should be ‘informed’ so some information of the study should be offered so that they can make a fully informed decision and should not be deceived.
explain the ethical issue of confidentiality and privacy
Confidentiality and privacy: researchers should respect the privacy of the participants and the identity and personal information of the participants should be kept confidential.
explain the ethical issue of protection
Protection: researchers need to be aware of the possible effects of their work on those they study and where possible should try to anticipate and prevent any harmful consequences.
explain the ethical issue of vulnerable issue
Vulnerable groups: special care should be taken where research participants are particularly vulnerable because of their age, physical or mental health etc.
what do theoretical issues mean
Theoretical issues refer to the two contrasting research traditions/approaches within sociology. These approaches are often referred to as positivism and interpretivism. These are based on a very different view and perspective of how society works, what drives our behaviour and how research should be conducted. The theoretical approach or perspective adopted by the sociologist has a significant impact on the type of research and research methods/sociologists prefer to use.
- POSITIVISTS
- INTERPRETIVISTS
Explain the theoretical issue of positivism / positivists
Positivists:
- see sociology as a science
- take a ‘top down approach’
to society - seek to measure the impact of society on behaviour
- seek to discover patterns of behaviour
- value detached objective data - facts + info
- adopt a macro level of analysis - large scale study - structures + systems of society
- adopt a macro level of analysis
- prefer quantitative research methods and data
Explain the theoretical issue of interpretivism / interpretivists
Interpretivists:
- reject the view that sociology is a science
- take a bottom-up approach (interactionists)
- seek to understand social actors meanings
- seek to interpret and understand behaviour
- recognise the value of subjective and in depth data (opinion/beliefs)
- adopt a micro level of analysis - small scale study - people/interviews
- prefer qualitative research methods and data
state a case that can be used for ethical issues in research
Loud Humphreys (1970) research into ‘the tearoom trade’
Explain Laud Humphreys (1970) research
Laud Humphreys research ‘the tearoom trade’ -
In the research, Humphrey observed gay sexual encounters in public toilets. He wished (a) to explain how such encounters and the social structure they required, worked; and (b) to investigate the rules and meanings attached to the encounters by the participants.
Humphrey did this research by being engaged in covert participant observation and follow up interviews.
Humphreys became part of the scene in Chicago by visiting gay bars and became an accepted part of the scene. For his CPO research, he adopted the role of ‘watch-queen’ – meaning a lookout, but also someone who got satisfaction from watching others engage in sex. Publication of his study attracted controversy. He noted 134 car number plates of cars regularly parked near the public toilets, and using contacts with the police forces, obtained the addresses of the owners. Having changed his appearance, he called on 100 people in the guise of a health survey to conduct further research a year later
What were the reactions to Humphreys research?
May (1993) recounts the details of the response to this research:
The reactions to the publication of his study were variable. As Humphreys notes in his postscript to the book: ‘several have suggested to me that I should have avoided this research subject altogether’. He was accused of deceit, the invasion of privacy and increasing the likelihood of the sample’s detection by the police. One account suggested that some faculty members at Washington University were so outraged ‘that they demanded (unsuccessfully) that Humphreys doctoral degree be revoked’.
On the other hand: ‘The research was applauded by members of the gay community and some social scientists for shedding light on a little-known segment of our society, and for dispelling stereotypes and myths’. In this sense, the means justified the end. He brought into the public domain an understanding of an issue which American society had done much to repress. To his critics however, the means can never justify the ends and research involving deception and manipulation undermines trust.
Why was Humphrey’s work criticised?
The reactions to the publication of his study were variable. As Humphreys notes in his postscript to the book: ‘several have suggested to me that I should have avoided this research subject altogether’. He was accused of deceit, the invasion of privacy and increasing the likelihood of the sample’s detection by the police. One account suggested that some faculty members at Washington University were so outraged ‘that they demanded (unsuccessfully) that Humphreys doctoral degree be revoked’.
Why was Humphrey’s work celebrated by some?
On the other hand: ‘The research was applauded by members of the gay community and some social scientists for shedding light on a little-known segment of our society, and for dispelling stereotypes and myths’. In this sense, the means justified the end. He brought into the public domain an understanding of an issue which American society had done much to repress. To his critics however, the means can never justify the ends and research involving deception and manipulation undermines trust.
State the topics involved in research design e.g. designing and conducting much research
1 - choosing a topic
2 - formulating an aim or hypothesis
3 - operationalising concepts
4 - the pilot study
5 - Sampling
6 - Sampling techniques
Explain the stage of choosing a topic in relation to research design
CHOOSING A TOPIC:
Sociologists need to decide what topic they wish to study. This will be guided by funding bodies, location, societal values, topics of contemporary significance e.g. Brexit, covid-19 (any topics that are current issues), personal interests, sociologists perspective e.g. feminists will focus their topics on gender inequality or domestic violence etc.
Explain the stage of formulating an aim or hypothesis
FORMULATING AN AIM OR HYPOTHESIS:
Most research either has a general aim or specific hypothesis to test. An aim identifies what the sociologist intends to study and hopes to achieve by conducting the research e.g. the research reasons for educational underachievement. Much research is designed to test a specific hypothesis:
Hypothesis is a predictive statement, prediction, explanation, theory that can be challenged to be either true or false. e.g. material deprivation leads to educational underachievement.
what is advantage of formulating an aim or hypothesis?
The advantage of hypothesis is that it gives direction to research and focus to the questions to be asked. Creating a hypothesis requires the sociologist to think up a possible explanation and often they do this by drawing on previous research that has been conducted on the topic, but it could come from anywhere. If the evidence gathered shows that the hypothesis is false, then it must be discarded and attention could be directed to new directions for research.
Explain the stage of operationalising concepts
OPERATIONALISING CONCEPTS:
operationalising concepts refers to sociologists testing their hypothesis ‘material deprivation leads to educational underachievement’. (material deprivation being the independent variable e.g. the cause which can lead to a consequence whereas educational underachievement is the dependent variable e.g. the effect which must be clarified and defined).
Abstract ideas included within the hypothesis must be defined and clarified in order to ensure that they can be measured (operationalised) - measurement of underachievement and material deprivation to define and clarify/clear.
Once the sociologist has a working or ‘operational’ definition of the concept, they can then write questions that measure it. Therefore, before research starts, sociological ideas must be defined in a way that can be measured
Explain the stage of the pilot study
THE PILOT STUDY:
Once a hypothesis has been designed and key concepts operationalised, the next stage is to produce a pilot study.
A pilot study is a draft/smaller scale, preliminary trial study designed to test the research design e.g. the questions and problems with research.
After carrying out the pilot study, it should be possible to finalise
Explain stage of the sampling
SAMPLING:
Once a sociologist has decided on the topic of their research, they need to decide who should be included in their research - their target/research population:
The target/research population refers to the people, a social group or the community who are relevant to the research/study and the group that will be targeted in the study.
For practical reasons, sociological research cannot involve the entire relevant population, therefore sociologists choose a sample:
A smaller sub-group drawn from the larger research group, target population
Each individual member of the sample is a sampling unit. Sociologists often aim to produce generalisations that apply to all cases of the topic and people they are researching, not just those in those involved in the study. The basic purpose of sampling is to ensure that those people selected for the sample are representative of the larger target/research population. If the sample is representative, generalisations can be made to cover the entire target/research population:
sociologists who engage in a macro level analysis, want to generalise the findings of their research to the entire target/research population/ they can only do this if their sample is typical / a cross - section of the population they are studying.
In some cases, a sociologist may be able to select their sample from a sampling frame:
A database/list of all members of the research / target population e.g the school
Explain what is a representative sample
Representative sampling:
Sociologists employ various sampling techniques to gain a representative sample of the research population:
- Random sampling
- Quasi-random/systematic sampling
- stratified random sampling
- quota sampling
define random sampling
Random sampling refers to where a sample is selected purely by chance and everyone has an equal chance of being selected, e.g. names may be drawn out of a hat..
A large enough random sample should reflect the characteristics (e.g. gender, ethnicity, class etc.) of the whole research population. However, not all random samples are large enough to ensure representativeness.
define quasi-random/systematic sampling
Quasi-random/systematic sampling is where every nth person in the sampling frame is selected.
define stratified random sampling
stratified random sampling is where the researcher first breaks down (stratifies) the population in the sampling frame by age, gender, ethnicity etc. The sample is then created in the same proportions, e.g. if 20% of the population are U18, 20% of the sample would be U18
define quota sampling
Quota sampling is where the population is stratified as above, and then each is given a quota of say, 20 females and 20 males, which they have to fill with respondents who fit these characteristics. The interviewer keeps at this task until their quota is filled.
explain non-representative sampling
For theoretical and practical reasons, not all studies use representative sampling techniques: Even where it is possible to create a representative sample, some sociologists may choose not to do so, because of their theoretical/methodological perspective. Interpretivists engage in a micro level of analysis as they are more concerned with gaining a valid understanding of behaviour than to discover general laws of behaviour. Therefore, they often use non-representative samples.
non-representative samples include snowball sampling and opportunity sampling
in relation to non-representative samples, state several practical reasons why it may not be possible to create a representative sample
There are several practical reasons why it may not be possible to create a representative sample:
(a) The social characteristics of the research population may not be known and therefore it would be impossible to create a sample that was an exact cross-section of it;
(b) It may be impossible to find or create a sampling frame for that particular research population;
(c) Potential respondents may refuse to participate. Where it is not possible to obtain a representative sample, sociologists sometimes use snowball or opportunity samples:
explain snowball sampling
Snowball sampling involves collecting a sample by contacting a key number of individuals who are asked to suggest others who would participate in the research, thus adding to the sample ‘snowball’ fashion. Although not representative, it is a useful way to contact a sample of people who may otherwise be difficult to find.
explain opportunity sampling
Opportunity sampling involves choosing from those individuals who are easiest to access or a captive audience. However, the sample is unlikely to be representative.
state what most sociological research in education is focused on? (EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH CONTEXT AND CHARACTERISTICS)
- causes of achievement and underachievement (social class, gender and ethnicity)
- external and internal influences on success and failure
- classroom relationships
- student behaviour and misbehaviour
- gendered subject choice
- the effect of educational policies on school
state what educational research tends to focus on? e.g. groups and settings
- schools (organisation, discipline, marketing)
- students ( conformity, deviancy, subcultures and identity)
- teachers ( attitudes towards sets and streams, social class, gender and ethnicity)
- parents (attitudes and support)
- classroom (teacher-student interactions)
state access issues in relationship to educational research context and characteristics
gaining access to school to conduct research is not straightforward. permission and informed consent need to be obtained from:
- LEAs
- Governors and Head teacher
- Parents (particularly if pupils are very young)
- students themselves
- By law, researcher will have to undergo a disclosure and barring service (DBS) to check their suitability if the researcher involves spending one-to-one time with students
state educational research context and characteristics in relation to sampling
schools have ready made sampling frames which might include:
- lists or registers of present day students divided into year groups, subjects and exam entry
- lists of past students and last known addresses
- students lists that can be sub-divided by gender and ethnicity
- names and addresses of parents (past and present) (these details are confidential, but a school may support sociological research by contacting parents for their cooperation)
- lists of staff and responsibilities
- lists of PTA members
state the five main groups and settings that can be identified in education with distinctive characteristics
- schools
- parents
- teachers
- classrooms
- students
state issues in researching in school in relation to education
- the many different school types in the UK (comprehensives, academies, grammar and private schools) which may undermine the representativeness of the sociological sample
- finding similar schools to compare may be difficult - no one catchment area is the same
- sociologists may be excluded from same school settings. e.g. management meetings
- governors and heads may deny permission for sociological research if they suspect that the findings may result in criticism or bad publicity
- schools are data-rich environments - they have a legal obligation to produce statistics on a range of processes in which sociologists are interested
- some school data may be unavailable due to confidentiality, e.g. relating to ‘students at risk’ or with special needs or to personal problems the student and/or parents are experiencing
- some schools, for example prestigious private schools have more power to say no to sociological research
state issues in researching parents in relation to education
sociologists may research parents by using questionnaires and interviews, however parent-teacher interaction could be observed at parents’ evenings or open days.
PRACTICAL - access to parents is more difficult because they are not concentrated in one place
PRACTICAL - parental addresses may be supplied by the school; the sample selected may be unrepresentative because such lists are unlikely to identify their social class, ethnicity etc.
ETHICAL - some parents may only give informed consent for themselves if they can see the benefits of the research
THEORECTICAL - parental response to a questionnaire about parental support and interest may be uneven - thus undermining its representativeness
THEORECTICAL - some groups of parents may enthusiastically over-respond because they are involved with the PTA; others may fail to respond because they feel the research is implicitly critical of their efforts.
THEORECTICAL - some parents may attempt to manage the impression the researchers have of them by exaggerating their support or interest
state issues researching teachers in relation to education
Questionnaires or interviews are used because it is more practical, but observations of interaction in a staffroom could be covertly observed.
PRACTICAL - teachers are accessible (once permission has been gained) because they are concentrated in one place
PRACTICAL - teachers are constrained by timetables, the need to prepare lessons and marking, so may lack the time and enthusiasm to take part in research
ETHICAL - it is essential to assure teachers of confidentiality because they may be anxious that managers may use the data against them
THEORECTICAL - teachers may engage in impression management and be unwilling to admit to certain types of ‘negative’ behaviour, such as stereotyping or labelling of students, because they fear being judged as unprofessional
THEORECTICAL - teachers who may volunteer or who are selected by the head teacher to take part in the research may be unrepresentative of teachers in school.
state issues researching classrooms in relation education
Direct non-participant observation is the most common method used to research classrooms.
PRACTICAL - the closed setting means the researcher can exercise more control over observing particular interactions and relationships
PRACTICAL - the teacher’s awareness of the observation may mean their interaction with students becomes less natural
PRACTICAL/ETHICAL - there may be some scope for covert PO if the sociologists take on the roles of supply teacher or teaching assistant (although there are ethical issues with this)
THEORECTICAL - teachers may associate observations with inspection of their ability and may attempt to manage the researchers impression of them by constructing an unrepresentative lesson, so their observed behaviour may not be high in validity
THEORECTICAL - student behaviour may be unrepresentative as some may be subdued by the presence of a stranger, while others may be tempted to ‘play up’ to the researcher’s presence (Hawthorne effect)
state practical issues with researching students in relation to education
(practical issues)
Questionnaires, interviews and observational methods may generate the following issues when researching students:
Practical issues in researching students -
- students are relatively easy to access because they have to legally attend school
- representative samples can be taken from school sampling frames in terms of age, gender, ethnicity, age, ability etc.
- some children may not be in school because they are persistently truant or have been suspended or excluded
- children who have had a ‘difficult’ time at school and/or are members of anti-school subcultures are less likely to cooperate with researchers
- Questionnaire design and wording needs to consider the age and ability of the child.
- Researchers can use children who are claiming FSMs as samples of children from poorer families
- Children may be reluctant to admit to behaviour (e.g. bullying or racist language) because they associate the researchers with authority.
- Researching children can be time-consuming and therefore potentially expensive.