Education Flashcards
Explain what is meant by the social class gap
SOCIAL CLASS GAP:
A child from a working class background is less likely to:
Be in a nursery or a pre-school play group
Leave school with 5 or more A*-C (9-4) grades at GCSE
Progress to university
What is a child from a working class background more likely to?
start school unable to read
fall behind in reading, writing and numeracy
suffer from mental health problems, illness, poor attendance and poor performance
be placed in lower sets
study vocational subjects
achieve lower scores in SATs and GCSEs
attend a failing school
A shorter educational career
State statistics in relation to the class gap in education
According to a government review, poverty damages a child’s chances in life before they reach the age of 2. It found that children from the poorest homes hear 13 million words by the time they are age 4, while those from more affluent households hear 45 million.
The gap in science knowledge between pupils aged 7-11 on FSMs and the rest of their classmates is 15% - it is 16% in Maths.
Children from middle class families, on average perform better than working class children and the class gap in achievement grows wider as children get older.
They do better at GCSE: children of higher professionals are 2-3 times more likely than children of routine manual workers to gain A-C grades (9-4) at GCSE. In 2015, 35% of pupils eligible for FSMs gained 5+ A-C (9-4), compared with 63% of pupils from wealthier backgrounds.
Children of the middle class stay longer in full-time education and take the great majority of university places. Between the early 80s and late 90s, the proportion of poorer children who graduate from university increased by 3% (only), compared to 26% from wealthier families. (Social Mobility Foundation)
38.5% of children from the quarter of UK areas with the lowest incomes achieve 5+ GCSE passes at C or above compared to 72.5% of children from the quarter of the UK with the highest incomes.
A Durham university study in 2016 found privately educated children are two years ahead of students in the state sector by the time they reach 16.
What did a UCL and kings college London study find about educational achievement and social class background?
A child’s social background is the crucial factor in academic performance and that a school’s success is based not on its teachers, the way it is run, or what type of school it is, but overwhelmingly, on the class background of its pupils.
Although a school’s performance is accounted for by the social make-up of its pupils, the study found that, whatever their background, children do better the more ‘middle-class’ the school they attend.
Put simply, it was found that the more middle class the pupils, the better they do. A child’s chances of success in Britain today are still largely dependent on the background and earnings of its parents.
Explain Perry and Francis review into differences in educational achievement
PERRY and FRANCIS (2010) produced a detailed review of the research into differences in educational achievement. In summary they found that social class remains the strongest predictor of educational achievement in the UK, where the social class gap for educational achievement is one of the most significant in the developed world. They recognise that this has been identified as a policy concern by all three main political parties, illustrating as it does both the extent of wider social inequality in the UK and a barrier to meritocracy and social mobility.
The previous Education Secretary Michael Gove told a Commons education committee in 2010 that “rich, thick kids” do better than “poor, clever” children, even before they start school.
Although the blunt and emotive language provoked criticism from the National Association of Head Teachers, PERRY and FRANCIS note that there is a broad agreement with Gove’s essential message: that of the clear connection between poverty and educational underachievement; and the problem of this relationship for the notion of a meritocratic and fair society.
What studies do Perry and Francis draw upon that support their argument that social class is the stronger predictor of educational attainment
PERRY and FRANCIS identify that many recent statistical studies have highlighted that social class is the strongest predictor of educational attainment in Britain including the National Equality Panel (2010); Sodha and Margo (2010); Kerr and West (2010).
Research by the National Equality Panel (2010) and Sodha and Margo (2010) highlight that British children’s educational attainment is overwhelmingly linked to parental occupation, income, and qualifications. Marked differences become apparent during early childhood with regard to readiness for school (National Equality Panel, 2010). By the age of three, poor children have been assessed to be one year behind richer ones in terms of communication (BBC 2010) and in some disadvantaged areas, up to 50% of children begin primary school without the necessary language and communication skills (National Equality Panel 2010).
How does compulsory education widen inequalities in education
As compulsory schooling progresses, educational inequalities continue to widen between children from poor families and those from more affluent backgrounds. Using free school meals as the best available indicator of socio-economic background statistics show that at Key Stage 2, 53.5% of pupils eligible for free school meals reach the expected level (i.e. level 4 or above) in English and mathematics, compared with 75.5% of pupils who are not eligible. Furthermore, Cassen and Kingdon (2007) and Kerr and West (2010) found that these children are more likely to attend the lowest-performing schools in deprived areas They are also disproportionately likely to have been in care, and/or have special educational needs.
Although Kerr and West (2010) note that this is a widespread international phenomenon and research has shown that social deprivation has a negative impact on educational attainment across all OECD countries, the UK has a particularly high degree of social segregation and is one of the nations with the most highly differentiated results among OECD countries.
What did the report institute of fiscal studies estimate on how many children will be in relative poverty?
A report by the Institute for Fiscal Studies estimates that by 2022, 37% of children will live in relative poverty in the Uk, with the greatest rise expected in wales, the north-east, the east midlands and Northern Ireland
What explanations for social class differences sociologists are interested in?
Sociologists are interested in why there is a social class gap in educational achievement and have developed a number of explanations. These can be grouped into ‘internal’ and ‘external’ explanations or factors (though in reality they are often interlinked).
What is meant by external explanation?
External explanation are preoccupied with explaining the social class gap as a consequence of factors outside of schools e.g. home background, parental support, cultural beliefs and values etc
What is meant by the internal explanation?
Internal explanation are preoccupied with explaining the social class gap as a consequence of factors inside of schools e.g, the type of school a pupil attends, a set/band they are in, teacher-pupil interactions and pupil sub-culture
Explain External explanations
External Explanations:
Sociologists who focus on external factors emphasise the influence of the home, culture and wider society. They develop a more macro level of analysis and a structural explanation of the social class gap in educational achievement. It is often viewed as an input/output approach, where achievement is explained in terms of what pupils bring or fail to bring with them.
The following external factors that affect pupils’ achievement will be considered:
(a) Material Deprivation
(b) Cultural Deprivation
(c) Cultural Capital
Explain the theory of material deprivation
THEORIES OF MATERIAL DEPRIVATION
Theories of material deprivation are linked to economic poverty. The view is that as a result of a lack of financial resources in working class homes, children are deprived of material resources and facilities which would enhance their educational progress and thus achievement. Low income is understood as creating a barrier to learning, where children are unable to make the most of educational opportunities. Therefore, as a result of material deprivation working class children are disadvantaged in school and in their education.
Example of material deprivation include:
- lack of stationary
- lack of internet/technology
- lack of food and a balance diet
- warm clothes (lack of)
- heated home and warm food
- a nice home (lack of)
- overcrowded house (no space to work or sleep)
- missing opportunities e.g school trips
- not being able to afford a tutor
How is poverty closely linked to educational achievement
- 90% of failing schools are found in deprived areas
- Douglas argues that a ‘barren’ household is not the best ingredient for educational success
Explain housing in relation to material deprivation
Housing:
Poor housing can affect pupils’ achievement both directly and indirectly. Overcrowding can make it harder to study and do homework and can lead to disturbed sleep from sharing bedrooms and young children’s development can be impaired through a lack of space for safe play and exploration. Poor housing can impact on a child’s health and welfare leading to more accidents in the home and cold or damp housing can cause ill health. Families in temporary accommodation suffer more psychological distress, infection and accidents and find that their schooling is disrupted from constantly having to move.
Explain diet and health in relation to material deprivation
. Diet and health:
Howard (2001) notes that young people from poorer homes have a lower intake of energy, vitamins and minerals. Poor nutrition affects health, weakening the immune system and lowering energy levels – this may lead to difficulties concentrating in class and more absences from school. Children from poorer homes have more absences from school are also more likely to have emotional or behavioural problems. According to Wilkinson (1996) among 10 year-olds, the lower the social class, the higher the rate of hyperactivity, anxiety and conduct disorders, all of which are likely to have a negative effect on their education. Blanden and Machin (2007) found that children from low-income families were more likely to engage in externalising behaviour (such as fighting and temper tantrums), which are likely to disrupt their schooling.
Explain finances in relation to material deprivation
. Finances:
Children from poorer families have to do without equipment and miss out on experiences that would enhance their educational achievement. Bull (1980) refers to this as ‘the costs of free schooling’. Research by Tanner et al (2003) found that the cost of items such as transport, uniforms, books, calculators and sport, music and art equipment, places a heavy burden on poor families. Smith and Noble (1995) add that poverty acts as a barrier to learning in other ways, such as inability to afford private schooling or tuition and poorer quality schools. Furthermore, Ridge (2002) found that children in poverty are more likely to take on jobs and that this often has a negative impact on school work. Going to university involves getting into debt to cover tuition fees, books and living expenses. Attitudes towards debt may deter prospective working-class students from going to university. Research by Callender and Jackson (2005) found that working class students are more debt-averse and saw more costs than benefits from going to university. Those who do go are less likely to receive financial support from their families and are more likely to apply to local universities so they could live at home. This gives working class students less opportunity to go to the highest status universities. Additionally, dropout rates are also higher for universities with a large proportion of poor students: for example, 13% at Sunderland, a university with a large working-class intake, but only 1.4% at Oxford, where over 4 in 10 students come from private schools.
Explain cultural deprivation
THEORIES OF CULTURAL DEPRIVATION
Theories of cultural deprivation are linked to the home, cultural background and parental values. The view is that as a result of socialisation patterns working class parents do not instill values which encourage children to value school and their education and to be aspirational and ambitious. Working class culture is understood as inadequate – as failing to nurture, stimulate and enrich educational interest and therefore working-class children lack the ‘cultural equipment’ essential for educational success and are therefore at a disadvantage.
Examples of cultural deprivation include:
- a ‘book poor’ home - a household with no reading material/children books or newspapers to aid children’s development
- lacking cultural opportunities e.g travel, visiting galleries/museums - WC world more small - not exposed to enrichment opportunities
According to cultural deprivation theorists, many working-class families fail to socialise their children adequately. These children grow up ‘culturally deprived’ and lack the cultural equipment required to do well at school so under-achieve
Explain intellectual development in relation to cultural deprivation
Intellectual development:
This refers to the development of thinking and reasoning skills, such as the ability to solve problems and use ideas and concepts. Cultural deprivation theorists argue that many working-class homes lack the books, educational toys and activities that would stimulate a child’s intellectual development. Therefore, children from working class homes start school without having developed the intellectual skills required to progress.
In a longitudinal study ‘The Home and the School’ DOUGLAS (1964) traced the educational careers of 5,362 British children born in the first week of March 1946 through primary school and then followed the progress of 4,720 of the original sample through secondary school up to the age of 16. Comparing the achievement of high ability pupils, he found that 77% of UMC, 60% of LMC, 53% of UWC and 37% of LWC pupils gained good O-Level results. The social class differences in results for lower ability pupils were even greater. DOUGLAS found important social class differences in primary socialisation patterns suggesting that middle class children receive greater attention and stimulation from their parents which in turn fosters intellectual progress. He based some of his arguments on additional sociological and psychological research identifying social class variations in child-rearing practices. Middle class socialisation patterns are understood as laying a better foundation for high achievement and therefore middle-class children are at an advantage as family and school environments positively reinforce each other.
BERNSTEIN and YOUNG (1967) reached similar conclusions arguing that middle class mothers are more likely to choose toys that encourage thinking and reasoning skills and prepare children for school.
Explain attitudes and values in relation to cultural deprivation
Attitudes and values:
Cultural deprivation theorists argue that parents’ attitudes and values are a key factor affecting educational achievement. DOUGLAS argued that the single most important factor affecting educational progress was the degree of parental interest shown in a child’s education. He concluded that generally, middle class parents take a greater interest in their children’s education and value it more – which motivates children to do well. This he argued was evident from the fact that they are more likely to attend parents’ evenings, make more frequent visits to school to talk to teachers and support children with their homework etc. DOUGLAS noted that parental interest becomes even more important as children get older.
Evaluates Douglas view on attitudes and values
- Blackstone and Mortimore argue that WC parents may value their children’s education as much as MC parents but may encounter more difficulties accessing the school e.g may not have flexible working hours to take time off work, transport problems - cost, child care costs
- many wc parents may struggle with helping their children’s homework as their educational knowledge is limited
Explain research by Hyman in relation to attitudes and values
Research by HYMAN (1967) found that the values of the working class create a self-imposed barrier to educational and career success. They tend to believe they have less opportunity for individual advancement and place less value on achieving high status jobs – so they see no point in education. Subcultural beliefs and values place a greater value on securing a good steady job straight from school
Explain Sugarman’s view on the four features that act as a barrier to educational achievement
Similarly, SUGARMAN (1970) argues that working-class subculture has four key features that act as a barrier to educational achievement:
Present-time orientation:
Thinking and living the present the here and now.
This can be contrasted with future time orientation which refers to thinking and planning in the future for middle class
Immediate gratification: Wanting benefits, pleasure, satisfaction reward gratification now
This can be contrasted with deferred gratification where the individual will sacrifice short-term rewards for long term benefits and rewards in the future
Fatalism:
A belief that you cannot change how things are as they are predetermined and predestined.
This can be contrasted with activism for the middle class which emphasises individual achievement and aspirations
Collectivism: A belief that group/collective effort is required to generate change.
This can be contrasted with individualism which emphasises individual achievement and aspirations
SUGARMAN claims that the differences in the nature of middle and working-class occupations produce differences in attitudes and values. Middle class jobs are secure careers offering prospects for continuous individual advancement which is in direct contrast to working class jobs. These different values and beliefs are internalised and then passed on to the next generation of each subculture through the socialisation process. He concludes that the subcultural values and attitudes of the working class place them at a distinct disadvantage within the education system because they clash with the middle-class values and ethos of the school. School is an extension of middle-class values and therefore middle class culture equips children for success, whereas working class values fail to do so.
Explain Language in relation to cultural deprivation
. Language:
The importance of language for educational achievement was highlighted by BEREITER and ENGLEMANN (1966). They claim that the language used in lower class homes is deficient and as a result, children fail to develop the necessary language skills required in school. Because of the importance of speech to communication and learning, it affects our capacity to be educated, our capacity to articulate our understanding and therefore our educational achievement.
BERNSTEIN (1975) developed a socio-linguistic theory where he sought to explain how a person’s social class position shapes the sort of language, or more specifically the speech codes that people use. He distinguished between two speech codes restricted code and elaborated code
According to BERNSTEIN it is the elaborated code that is used in education (by teachers, textbooks and in exams) and is therefore vital for educational success. Not only is it taken as the ‘correct’ way to speak and write, but it is also a more effective tool for explicitly conveying meaning, analysing information, for logically and rationally developing an argument and for handling complex concepts – all essential skills in education. Crucially, schools do not teach pupils how to use this code. Early socialisation into the elaborated code means that middle class children are already fluent users of the code when they start school. Thus, they feel ‘at home’ in school and are more likely to succeed. In contrast, working class children, lacking the code in which schooling takes place, are likely to feel excluded and to be less successful as schools fail to teach them how to use the elaborated code.
What is meant by restricted code?
RESTRICTED CODE:
-The structure of this code reflects its function – the speaker assumes that listeners share the same set of meanings and experiences - it is context-bound.
-Meanings conveyed are particularistic in that they are specific to the shared situation of the speaker and the listener. This means that the speaker takes for granted that the audience will grasp his/her meaning – the code is implicit.
-Sentences tend to be short, often unfinished, grammatically simple and predictable and there is limited use of adjectives and adverbs.
Explain elaborated code
ELABORATED CODE:
-The structure of this code reflects its function - it is used for the transmission of facts and the accurate delivery of processes.
-The meanings transmitted are explicit and it is characterised by longer, grammatically more complex and varied sentences with a wide range of vocabulary.
-The speaker does not orientate his/herself to the listener but to the messages that s/he wishes to convey. As such, its meanings are universalistic as it is context-free.
State examples of cultural capital
Individuals gain cultural capital by their socialisation and their lifestyle – it relates to an appreciation of art, culture, literature, politics – it also links to people’s tastes in music, food, travel etc.
Cultural capital can be gained through reading, visiting galleries, museums, travelling, keeping abreast of current affairs etc.
Essentially, cultural capital is the opposite of being culturally deprived and it provides an excellent foundation for educational success.
Explain present-time orientation and future time orientation
Present-time orientation: Thinking and living in the present, the here and now. This is in contrast to future time orientation: planning and thinking of future time orientations.
(WC jobs encourage PTO as they provide little scope for career advancement – absence of career structure, whereas MC careers provide continuous scope for personal advancement in income and status – aspirational – so encourage FTO).
Explain immediate gratification and deferred gratification
Immediate gratification: Wanting benefits, pleasure, satisfaction, gratification now in contrast to deferred gratification: delaying rewards and gratification - sacrificing short term rewards for longer term benefits and rewards in the future.
(WC jobs encourage this attitude of IG as full earning potential reached immediately, whereas MC careers enable DG).
Explain fatalism and activism
Fatalism: A belief that you cannot change how things are as they are predetermined and predestined. This is in contrast to activism: a more proactive approach where individuals are encouraged to take steps to improve situation/status
(MC careers: enable advancement through promotion, whereas WC jobs have more limited scope for change and improvement).
Explain collectivism and individualism
Collectivism: A belief that group/collective effort is required to generate change in contrast to individualism which emphasises individual achievement and aspirations.
(WC jobs: traditionally emphasised the role of trade unions as a way of gaining improvement in contrast to MC careers which focus on individual advancement).
Explain the theory of cultural capital
THEORIES OF CULTURAL CAPITAL
This refers to the knowledge, attitudes, values, tastes and abilities of the middle class. Through socialisation middle class children acquire an understanding of what the education system requires for success. Middle class culture is a type of capital as it gives an advantage to those who possess it as it is valued by the education system and therefore aids educational success
The French Marxist sociologist BOURDIEU (1977) developed a distinctive cultural explanation for the differences in attainment between the social classes. He states that there are important links between the class structure, home background, culture and experiences in schooling which results in social and cultural inequalities being transferred from one generation to the next (schools work in such a way that the middle class remain middle class and the working stay working class). However, unlike cultural deprivation theorists, Bourdieu does not blame the working classes themselves for this. He places responsibility with the class system and the education system for giving middle class pupils advantages and privileges which enable them to succeed within education.
Explain Bourdieu term of cultural capital
Bourdieu uses the term CULTURAL CAPITAL to refer to the knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities of the middle class which they gain through socialization. He sees middle class culture as a type of capital because, like wealth, it gives an advantage to those who possess it. Middle class pupils are at an advantage in school as their culture and its language, interests, attitudes etc. is highly valued (their class has imposed its knowledge on the masses and has defined their own culture as worthy of being sought and possessed). They are therefore, more able to meet the demands of the curriculum and therefore rewarded with qualifications (EDUCATIONAL CAPITAL). For Bourdieu, schools are therefore not neutral places; they are biased in favour of the middle classes. Schools reproduce the culture of the dominant class rather than transmitting the culture of society as a whole.
For Bourdieu, children born into the middle and upper classes have an inbuilt advantage as their culture has capital and is the culture of the school. He claims that many working-class pupils feel devalued and rejected and ‘get the message’ that education is not meant for people like them and respond by truanting, early leaving or just not trying (think of the lads in Paul Willis’ study). His primary argument therefore, is that the education system reproduces the dominant culture and in doing so helps to reproduce the class system.
How did sociologist Sullivan test Bourdieu’s ideas?
In order to test BOURDIEU’S ideas SULLIVAN (2001) used questionnaires to conduct a survey of 465 pupils in four schools. To assess their cultural capital, she asked them about a range of activities, such as reading and TV viewing habits and whether they visited galleries, museums and the theatre. She also tested their vocabulary and knowledge of cultural figures. She found that those who read complex fiction and watched serious TV documentaries developed a wider vocabulary and greater cultural knowledge, indicating greater cultural capital. The children with greatest cultural capital were children of graduates and these pupils were more likely to be successful at GCSE and middle class. Supporting BOURDIEU, BALL (1991) and GERWITZ (1995) also state that middle class parents are more privileged, they have more cultural capital and are able to use this to ensure that their children secure a place in the school of their choice.
Supporting Bourdieu, Ball (1991) and Gewirtz (1995) also state that middle class parents are more privileged, they have more cultural capital and are able to use this to ensure that their children are secured a place in the school of their choice.
Evaluate the cultural capital
- Unlike the cultural deprivation theory - Bourdieu do not see working class culture as inferior or blame the working for underachievement of their children
- statistical research suggests material deprivation and cultural deprivation are more significant factors in explaining class differences than cultural capital
- unfair to blame schools for being biased against WC children when schools put extra resources into helping Wc children
- if theory is true, there are no practical solutions to reduce class inequalities
- theory relevant with neoliberal education policies
Explain what is meant by compensatory education
Compensatory education is a policy designed to address the problem of cultural deprivation specifically and material deprivation more generally by providing additional resources to schools and communities in deprived areas. Compensatory education programmes attempt to intervene early in the socialisation process to compensate children for the early deprivation they experience at home
Explain the famous example of operation head start in the US
A famous example of compensatory education is Operation Head Start: This was a multi-billion dollar U.S scheme providing pre-school education in poorer areas. It’s aim was to provide planned enrichment to improved deprived children’s environment – to help develop skills and instill aspiration and ambition. It included improving parental skills, setting up nursery classes and home visits by educational psychologists. The US children’s TV programme Sesame Street was initially part of Operation Head Start: providing a fun means of transmitting values, attitudes and skills needed for educational success – such as the importance of punctuality, numeracy and literacy.
Explain and state examples of Uk compensatory educational schemes
In Britain there have been several compensatory education programmes. In the 1960s Educational Priority Areas were established and more recently the last Labour government introduced many initiatives designed to overcome economic and social disadvantage including:
- Sure Start: aimed at pre-school children and families in disadvantaged areas providing home visits, play centres and financial help for childcare. The aim was to promote the physical, intellectual and social development of babies and young children so that they can flourish when they go to school, thereby breaking the cycle of disadvantage. One objective of Sure Start was to improve children’s ability to learn by establishing high quality environments that promote early learning, provide stimulating and enjoyable play and improve language skills.
- Education action Zones: providing additional resources and funding to schools in disadvantaged areas, replaced by the Excellence in Cities programme.
- The Aim Higher programme: to raise the aspirations of groups who are under-represented in higher education.
- Educational Maintenance Allowances: (replaced by the bursary system) payments to students from low-income backgrounds to encourage them to stay on after 16.
Explain the compensatory education policy of pupil premium
Aside from previous Labour governments, the Coalition Government introduced the policy of Pupil Premium in 2011. This allocated additional funding for each poor pupil to be in a school and was designed to assist their education depending on their specific needs. Despite these programmes, the gap between the educational achievement of poor children and their more affluent peers remains. Furthermore, there are concerns that cultural deprivation theories and compensatory education programmes individualise the problem of working-class underachievement and ignore wider structural inequalities in both the education system and society as a whole that contribute to the social class gap.
State criticisms of cultural deprivation theory
Cultural deprivation theory (CDT) has been widelycriticised as an explanation of social class differences in education.
Nell Keddie (1973) describes CDT as a ‘myth’. She dismisses the idea that failure at school can be blamed on a culturally deprived home background, arguing that a child cannot be deprived of its own culture.
She argues that WC children are culturally different, not culturally deprived. They fail because they are put at a disadvantage by an education system that is dominated by MC values
Keddie claims that CDT is a victim blamingexplanation – it deflects attention away from theproblem’schildren face inschool and blames theirhome background, rather than focusing onchallenging discrimination in school and teachers’ anti-WC prejudices.
Similarly,Troyna and Williams (1986)critiquethe view thatWC speech isrestricted and inadequate. They claim that the problem is notWC language, but school’s attitude towardsit. They claim that teachers have a’speech hierarchy’ where they label MC speech highest and WC lowest.
Furthermore, BlackstoneandMortimore(1994),challenge the idea thatWC parents are notinterested intheir children’s education. They recognisethat WC parents may attendfewerparents’ eveningsetc. However, they argue that this is not because they lack interest, but becausethey worklonger or irregular hours and would lose income if theytook time off work or they are put off by the school’s MC culture.
Furthermore, they may want to help their child progress but maylack the education to doso. There is also some evidencethat schools with mainlyWC pupils haveless effective systems of parent-school contacts, thus making it more difficult for parents to keep in touchabout their children’sprogress.
It should also be highlighted that CDT was developed by sociologists in the 1960s and 1970s. Society was very different then and it was more likely that WC communities did not value education in the same way they do today. Education is valued much more in today’s societythan in the past – by all social classes.
There are children who are CD who succeed in education, suggesting that CD is only part of the explanation.
Therefore, there are many criticisms of CDT – which call into question its validity and relevance.
state criticisms of material deprivation theory
Economic poverty and material deprivation (MD) are real problems impacting on children’s lives and educational experiences. However, while material factors clearly play a part in achievement, the fact that some children from poor families succeed suggests that MD is only part of the explanation.
For a number of years,successive governmentshave attempted to overcome MD (and CD) by introducingprogrammes of compensatory education. These certainlydo not alleviateMD, but they attempt to provide opportunitiesto
children from more
disadvantaged backgroundsby encouraginggreater participation in higher education.
Explain pupil class identities
Sociologists are also interested in how pupils’ class identities that are formed outside school interact with the school and its values to produce educational success and failure. ARCHER et al (2010) focus on the interaction between working class pupils’ identities and school and how this produces underachievement. To understand this relationship, they draw on the BOURDIEU’s (1984) concept of habitus.
Explain what is meant by habitus
Habitus refers to the dispositions or learned, taken-for-granted ways of thinking, being and acting that are shaped by a particular social class. It includes lifestyle and consumption preferences, outlook on life and expectations about what is normal or realistic for ‘people like us’. A group’s habitus is formed as a response to its position in the class structure. The middle class have the power to define their habitus as superior and impose it on the education system and therefore pupils who have been socialised at home into middle class tastes and preferences gain ‘symbolic capital’: status and recognition from the school and are deemed to have worth and value.
Explain symbolic violence according to Bourdieu and Archer
BOURDIEU calls the withholding of symbolic capital ‘symbolic violence’. ARCHER found that working class pupils felt that to be educationally successful, they would have to change how they talked and presented themselves. Thus, for working class students, educational success is often experienced as a process of ‘losing yourself’. They felt unable to access ‘posh’, middle class spaces such as university and professional careers, which were seen as ‘not for the likes of us’. Many pupils were conscious that society and the school looked down on them. This symbolic violence led them to create alternative ways of creating self-worth, status and value. They did so by constructing meaningful class identities for themselves by investing heavily in ‘styles’, especially through consuming branded clothing such as Nike. Style performances were heavily policed by peer groups and not conforming was ‘social suicide’, whereas the right appearance – although conflicting with the school dress code - earned symbolic capital.
Explain Nike identities
ARCHER argues that the school’s middle-class habitus leads teachers’ interpreting the ‘street’ style of working-class pupils’ as evidence of bad taste and therefore they stigmatise working class pupils’ identities. She concluded that working class pupils’ investment in ‘Nike’ identities is not only a cause of their educational marginalisation by the school; it also expresses their positive preference for a particular lifestyle. As a result, working class pupils may choose self-elimination or self-exclusion from education. In other words, not only do they ‘get the message’ that education is not for the likes of them, but they actively choose to reject it because it does not fit in with their identity or way of life.
Do studies support Archer’s study ?
ARCHER’s study largely addresses working class identity and educational failure. However, many working-class pupils succeed and go to university. Even here, however, the clash between working class identity and the habitus of higher education is a barrier to success. Research by EVANS (2009) found that this is partly due to a process of self-exclusion., e.g. not applying to elite universities as they are ‘not for the likes of us’.
Studies reveal a consistent pattern of a middle-class education system that devalues the experiences and choices of working-class people as worthless or inappropriate. As a result, working class pupils are often forced to choose between maintaining their working-class identities or abandoning them and conforming to the middle-class habitus of education in order to succeed.
Explain the interactionist contribution in relation to education
The explanations for differences in achievement examined so far all assume that achievement can be explained by factors beyond the school. Sociologists focused their analysis on what pupils brought or failed to bring to their experiences of schooling. As a result, working class underachievement was explained in terms of cultural and material deprivation or other structural constraints. However, a sustained challenge to these explanations was mounted by interactionist sociologists working within the social action approach with their roots in interpretive sociology. Interactionists have shifted the focus of analysis and concentrate their attention on the processes internal to the school. They criticise other sociologists for failing to give sufficient attention to the impact of schooling itself. Through detailed in-depth qualitative studies, they have illuminated the way in which school itself and the figures within it contribute to differences in achievement.
What do interactionists attempt to understand about education and what do they argue?
Interactionists attempt to understand the meaning of interaction and how individuals define situations and how they see themselves. To interactionists, your view of yourself, your self-concept is produced in interaction with others. That is, how you see yourself is partly formed by the view that you think others have of you, e.g. you might think you are funny, but if don’t laugh at you or give you positive feedback, you may be forced to reconsider your view of yourself.
In relation to education, interactionists argue that a pupil’s self-concept is influenced by teachers and other pupils. Interactionists see education as directed by meanings and definitions which are negotiated in schools and claim that class differences in education are socially constructed in the classroom. Drawing on the concept of labelling, they believe that teachers have specific expectations of pupils and more general expectations of particular streams, sets or bands. If a label is fixed, teachers may start to interpret a pupil’s behaviour in light of the label. They argue that labelling can go on to affect the self-concept of an individual to the degree that they may begin to act in terms of it. When individuals conform to a label that has been applied to them, a self-fulfilling prophecy is said to have occurred.
Explain Labelling interactionist theory according to Hargreaves et al
HARGREAVES et al (1927)
They analysed the way that pupils came to be typed and labelled by teachers. Based on interviews and observations they examined the way teachers ‘got to know’ their new pupils. They identified three stages to this process:
1. Speculation: teachers made guesses about what types of pupils they were dealing with based on factors such as ability and enthusiasm for work, how likeable they were, appearance, personality, conformity to discipline etc. At this point teachers are tentative in their views and are willing to amend them.
- Elaboration: at this point a teacher’s hypothesis is tested and confirmed or contradicted. They become more confident in their judgement of pupils.
- Stabilisation: teachers now feel that they know the pupils and are therefore not surprised or puzzled by their actions. From this point the future actions of pupils will be evaluated in terms of the label
Explain interactionist labelling theory in relation to Becker
BECKER (1977)
Becker made his observations in a Chicago high school. He found that classifications, judgements and evaluations of students were made in terms of a standard ‘ideal pupil’ and found that pupils from middle class non-manual backgrounds came closest to this ideal. He claimed that the meanings in terms of which students are assessed, judged and evaluated can have significant effects on attitude and behaviour in the classroom, as well as achievement. Becker found that teachers perceived pupils in a particular way and this expectancy influenced how they worked and interacted with students.
Explain interactionist theory in relation to Cicourel and Kitsuse (1963)
CICOUREL and KITSUSE (1963)
They argued that teachers are in an important position to affect a pupil’s progress. They conducted a study examining the decisions that tutors made in an American high school. The tutors had an important role determining student’s access to college and course. They found that rather than evaluating pupils on the basis of their ability, social class background was the most influential factor. Pupils of middle-class origins were seen to be ‘natural’ prospective college students. Cicourel and Kitsuse concluded that classifications of pupil’s abilities and potential were influenced by a whole range of non-academic factors. Tutors labelled pupils according to social class background.
Explain self-fulling prophecy according to Rosenthal and jacobson
ROSENTHAL and JACOBSON (1968)
Their research was designed to test the idea of the self-fulfilling prophecy. Conducting their research in an elementary school in California, they examined the effects and consequences of teacher’s definitions and expectations of pupils. As part of their research they arranged for all pupils in the school to sit a standard intelligence test and then they informed the teacher of each class the names of pupils who, on the basis of the test results would be expected to make rapid progress. Unknown to the teachers, Rosenthal and Jacobson had selected the names of the pupils at random. Therefore, the difference between the selected pupils and the rest was only in the mind of the teacher. A year later they returned to the school and re-tested all of the pupils – the selected group made excellent progress. Since there was no evidence that these pupils as a group were any different from the other, Rosenthal and Jacobson concluded that their progress was due to higher teacher expectations. They assumed that teachers must have communicated and conveyed their higher expectations to the pupils and they acted in terms of them. The result was a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Why have interactionists been accused of generalising the effects of labelling
However, interactionists have been accused of generalising the effects of labelling. They have been criticised for assuming that the same type of label is applied to a pupil by all teachers and for believing that labelling inevitably leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy. This positions pupils as passive when they are often active and have the ability and power to resist labels and prove teachers wrong. Negative labels can actually motivate students and have positive effects – therefore the consequences of labelling are not always predictable.
FULLER (1984)
Research by Fuller confirmed this. She conducted research in a London comprehensive school with a group of black working-class girls in Year 11. They were aware of the low expectations that teachers had of them, however whilst they were anti-school they were pro-education. Despite negative labelling they succeeded and did not produce a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Explain setting and streaming in relation to Keddie
SETTING AND STREAMING:
Setting and streaming are ways of grouping pupils according to their ability. Setting is where whole classes of pupils are put into different groups or sets for particular subjects while streaming involves grouping them for all subjects. Research has shown that being placed in a low set or stream may undermine pupils’ confidence and discourage them from trying. Teachers may have lower expectations and be less ambitious and give less knowledge to lower set/stream pupils.
KEDDIE (1971)
Keddie found that teachers taught those in higher streams/sets differently from those in lower groups. They were expected to behave better and do more work, teachers gave them more and different types of educational knowledge, which in turn gave them greater opportunities for educational success. She found that working class pupils (who are more likely to be in lower streams) might underachieve partly because they have not been given access to the knowledge required for educational success.
Explain setting and streaming in relation to Ball’s view
BALL (1981)
Ball conducted research at Beachside Comprehensive and found that top stream students were ‘warmed up’ by encouragement to achieve highly and to follow academic courses of study. In contrast lower stream students were ‘cooled-out’ and encouraged to follow lower status vocational and practical courses and consequently achieved lower levels of academic success, frequently leaving school at the earliest opportunity. Ball found that setting and streaming is often linked to social class and therefore the higher a pupil’s social class, the greater the chance of being allocated to a top stream. In this way Ball concluded that setting and streaming contribute to the underachievement of working-class pupils. He found that one of the effects of streaming, setting and labelling is to deprive those who are labelled as ‘failures’ in the bottom streams of status. In response to this, many often rebel against the school (think of Willis’ work).
