Research methods booklet two Flashcards
What are the features of a lab experiment?
Conducted in tightly controlled environment
Experimenter deliberately manipulates IV
Experimenter measures DV
Experimenter controls extraneous variables
Procedure and instructions are standardised
What are the strengths of lab experiments?
Cause and effect can be established so research is high in validity
Reliability can be checked as experiment has standardised procedures
What are the weaknesses of lab experiments?
Low ecological validity as experiment is artificial
Bias from demand characteristics so internal validity is compromised
What are the features of field experiments?
Conducted in a more natural environment
Experimenter deliberately manipulates the IV
Experimenter measures the DV
Experimenter controls some of the extraneous variables
What are the strengths of field experiments?
Greater ecological validity
Less bias from demand characteristics
What are the weaknesses of field experiments?
Low internal validity as difficult to establish cause and effect
More difficult to check reliability
Pt’s cannot give informed consent
What are the features of natural / quasi experiments?
Natural experiments conducted in a completely naturally occurring event
Experimenter has no control over the independent variable
Experimenter measures the DV
No control over extraneous variables
What are the differences between natural and quasi experiments?
Natural experiments involve a naturally occurring change whereas quasi experiments involve an already existing difference between participants.
What are the strengths of natural and quasi experiments?
Greatest ecological validity
Least likely to suffer from demand characteristics
What are the weaknesses of natural and quasi experiments?
Most difficult to establish cause and effect
Most difficult to check reliability
What are independent groups?
Involves using different people in each condition
For example, Loftus and Palmer research into eye-witness testimony
What are repeated groups?
It involves using the same participants in each condition
For example, Peterson and Peterson’s experiment into duration of short-term memory
However, Pts may perform better due to practise and order effects
What are matched pairs?
Pts are paired with another who is similar in a number of variables and they each go to different conditions.
For example, Melhuish’s research into children who were kept in full-term maternal care
What are the strengths of independent measures?
Avoids practise and order effects
Quick and easy to set up because each pt only takes part in one condition
What are the weaknesses of independent measures?
May be some pt variability, meaning comparison between groups could be affected
Requires many pts as you need a decent number in each group
What are the strengths of repeated measures?
No pt variability as they take part in both conditions
Fewer participants required
What are the weaknesses of repeated measures?
Order and practise effects are more likely to be encountered
Demand characteristics may be a problem as each complete the task twice
What are the strengths of matched pairs?
Completely avoids order and practise effects
Pt variability can be partially controlled as the pts in each condition are quite similar
What are the weaknesses of matched pairs?
Pts are never perfectly matched
Need lots of pts as you need a decent number in each group
What is counterbalancing?
Used in the repeated measures design to try and prevent order effects. It is where half of the participants perform first in condition A and the other half perform in condition B first. Therefore, the participants do not know the order of the tasks.
What is an open question?
Allows respondents to answer in their own words - this produces qualitative data
What are closed questions?
The respondents choose their response from a limited number of fixed responses predetermined by the researcher - this produces quantitative data
What are the advantages of open questions?
Provides rich, detailed data because it alows participants to express their own ideas, opinions and put their answers into their own words
What are the disadvantages of open questions?
Difficult to statistically analyse
What are the advantages of closed questions?
Easier to statistically analyse as we can translate this data into graphs and charts which allows us to make scientific conclusions
What are the disadvantages of closed questions?
They are restricted with set answers they have to give so cannot give their own detailed account
What are the key features involved in a questionnaire or survey?
Involve pts giving information to researchers about views, opinions or attitudes on a specific topic
Pts typically respond to questions on a questionnaire or during an interview
They can be structured or unstructured
Researchers need to use a combination of both open and closed questions
The researcher needs to select a large representative sample
What are the stengths of questionnaires?
Data can be collected in multiple forms so it is a cost effective mean of collecting data
Efficient way of collecting reliable data as researchers can easily analyse the data
What is a weakness of surveys?
The internal validity is compromised by social desirability as respondents may try to create a favourable impression of themselves - participant EV
Population validity is often lowered by sampling biases as the representativeness of the sample can be reduced depending on how the questionnaire is distributed or the sampling technique
What is random allocation?
Allocating pts to experimental conditions by putting all the names on paper, then placing in a hat. This reduces pt variability and sampling bias
What is a single blind technique?
When a pt is unaware of the condition they are put in or the aim of the experiment. This reduces demand characteristics as they do not know the purpose.
What is a double blind technique?
When neither the pt nor the experimenter know the true aim of the experiment as it is conducted by a research assistant. This avoids researcher bias and demand characteristics.
What are standardised procedures?
Same detailed instructions put in place for the duration of the experiment so it can be easily replicated. This enables the experiment to be more reliable.
What are the features of case studies?
It is an in-depth investigation of one person or a small group of people.
They involve naturally occurring events
It can be longitudinal or retrospective
A range of information is gathered, such as relationships, medical history and economic status
A number of methods to gather information is used, such as interviews, observations and psychological tests
Case study - highly valid?
Rich and detailed information is gathered using a variety of research methods. A large amount of data is gathered and we are given a complete picture. Better than lab.
Case study - subjective?
Involves written answers that need to be categorised into themes which may introduce subjectivity from the researcher. Background, training or personality may influence how they record data which lowers scientific basis.
Case study - generalisable?
Results come from a small group of people so are not representative. We cannot be sure of the similarity between people, and it is hard to replicate and compare.
Case study - reliable?
Situation is unique and does not incorporate standardised procedures. Other researcher’s data may contradict the findings.
Case study - ecological validity?
Data comes directly from people concerned and is gathered from their natural surroundings. Nothing is artificial.
Case study - ethical issues?
Pts may feel that they can’t withdraw as the researcher has invested so much time in them.
Pts may feel that they weren’t protected from harm.
What are the features of observations?
Systematic measurement of spontaneously occurring behaviour
Conducted in a controlled or naturalistic environment
Can be structured and unstructured
Researcher will produce a coding system with behavioural categories
What is a naturalistic observation?
Takes place in pts natural environment. In most cases pts are not aware that they are being observed, so they behave more naturally and results will have ecological validity
What is a controlled observation?
Takes place in an environment which allows for control over variables
What is a structured observation?
The data is gathered using a pre-written collection grid to record the frequency the behaviours have occurred (behavioural categories)
What is an unstructured observation?
The researcher uses direct observation to record behaviours as they occur and have no predetermined plan of what will be observed. This will usually be in the form of a transcript.
What is the strength of controlled observations?
High levels of control over extraneous variable so high level of reliability
What are the weaknesses of controlled observations?
Could lead to demand characteristics
Artificial so low ecological validity
What are the strengths of naturalistic observations?
High level of ecological validity
Minimises demand characteristics as they are unaware that they are being observed
What are the weaknesses of naturalistic observations?
No control over extraneous variables
Ethical issues as they have not given consent
What is a non-participant observation?
When the psychologist does not participate at all with the group and simply observes
What is a participant observation?
When the psychologist joins in the behaviour of the group so we can feel what it is like to be in their shoes
What are the strengths of participant observation?
Allows researcher to observe behaviour that might otherwise be out of reach
High ecological validity as generally covert
What are the weaknesses of participant observations?
Makes observations more subjective
If overt participation, it may lead to altered behaviour
What are the strengths of non participant observation?
Reduces the chance that the researcher will affect behaviour
Can use behaviour checklist in real time and not rely on memory
What are the weaknesses of non participant observation?
May be harder to observe all pts due to distance
Certain categories of behaviour are not observable
What are overt observations?
Where the participants know that they are being studied and that an observation is taking place
What are covert observations?
The researcher does not tell the group that they are being studied
What are the strengths of covert observation?
Increases ecological validity as real behaviour is not altered
What are the weaknesses of covert observation?
Ethical issues as you do not have consent
What are the strengths of overt observation?
Eliminates possible ethical problems
What are the weaknesses of overt observation?
Danger of reducing reliability due to demand characteristics
What is event based sampling?
A target behaviour is chosen, and the researcher records how many times this behaviour or event occurs
What is a strength of event based sampling?
All data is recorded as there are no intervals
What is a weakness of event based sampling?
May be difficult to record every event across the whole of the observation
What is time based sampling?
Researcher records behaviour at regular time intervals. Records for a fixed amount of time, and then fixed intervals
What is a strength of time based sampling?
Provides consistent data
What is a weakness of time based sampling?
Not all data is recorded so key data could be missed
What are the features of interviews?
Useful for gathering more detailed information and enables a more natural and flexible approach to questioning. The interviewer has certain topics that they want to cover but pts still give information about their views, opinions or attitudes towards a certain topic
Can be structured, unstructured or semi structured
Can use open or closed questions
What is a structured interview?
Interviewer will mostly ask questions which have been pre-written, but sometimes may add follow up questions to clarify a response. Can be closed or open, but follow a set format
Quantitative data
What is an unstructured interview?
The interviewer will have very few predetermined questions, but a number of topics that they want to explore. More like a conversations and the questions tend to be open.
Qualitative data
What is a semi-structured interview?
Aims to explore some themes and has set questions. The interviewer is allowed to explore some of these areas further based upon the interviewees’ initial responses
What are the strengths of interviews?
Allows for detailed information to be obtained as they use a combination of opened and closed questions.
More useful than questionnaires as we can identify body language and other non-verbal behaviours, so a skilled interviewer can gather richer data.
Semi structured - Encourages the pts to be honest and allows them to express themselves whilst allowing the researcher to analyse the data using graphs.
What are the weaknesses of interviews?
More time consuming that questionnaires as interviewer has to question one pt at a time. This is more expensive and requires more resources.
More difficult to statistically analyse the data from unstructured interviews as it is qualitative, so more subjective
What are the features of correlational studies?
Measures the relationship between two variables
Can be positive or negative
Can be weak or strong
Represented on a scattergram and analysed using Spearman’s Rho or Pearson’s R.
What are scattergrams?
Represents correlation
Quantitative variables - one placed on x and the other placed on y
How do you interpret a scattergram?
Is there a relationship between two variables
Positive or negative
Strong or weak
Explain why cause and effect cannot be established
What is a correlation co-efficient?
Quantifies the strength of relationships in correlations. + indicates there is a positive correlation between two co-variable and - indicates a negative correlation.
It is a strong correlation if it is around +0.8 or -0.8
There is no correlation if the coefficient is 0
What is a strength of correlations?
Establishes a relationship between two variables when manipulation of the variables is not possible as they are naturally occurring events or traits within people
They allow researchers to conduct statistical analysis on situations where manipulation would not be ethical or practical
Fairly easy to analyse using scattergrams
What are the weaknesses of correlations?
Does not establish cause and effect - only a relationship. There may be a third factor affecting the results
What is primary data?
Information collected directly from the pts by researchers for their own research aim. This will obtain first-hand knowledge of behaviour to test a specific hypothesis.
Questionnaires filled in by pts, observational data of pts behaviour, interviews directly from pts
What are the strengths of primary data?
It fits the criteria needed for the job - interviewers can create the questions specifically to target the information they require.
It provides authentic data directly from the pts without any pt or researcher bias
What are the weaknesses of primary data?
Requires time and efforts from the researcher as experiments can take preparation, planning and resources
What is secondary data?
Has been collected or created by someone else for their own purposes, but which the researcher can then recycle for their own research aim. It is not directly from pts.
Journal articles
Websites and national statistics
Meta-analysis
What is a strength of secondary data?
Easy accessibility and is inexpensive which makes it an easier method to use than primary data
Researcher may find that the information they wanted already exists so there is no need for another investigation
What are the weaknesses of secondary data?
Quality of secondary data may not be accurate compared to your own data
May take time to cross check the accuracy of all the findings
What is a meta-analysis?
Researchers analyse the results of several previous studies by combining results. Purpose is to gain greater confidence in the results because of the larger pool of participants.
What are the strengths of meta-analysis?
Allows us to calculate effect size giving an overall measurement of a difference or relationship between variables
Allows us to view data with more confidence
What is a weakness of meta-analysis?
Validity can be poor if the research leaves out non-significant results
One poorly conducted study can place the results of the entire meta-analysis at risk
What is informed consent?
Presumptive consent, prior general consent and retrospective consent.
Pts should sign a form at the beginning of the procedure or gain consent or guardian if pt is under 18
What is rights to withdraw?
Must be stated at the start and the end - given cut off point. With children, signs of anxiety means that they wish to withdraw
What is deception?
If info is withheld to protect validity, it must be revealed ASAP after study with the opportunity for pts to ask questions
What is debriefing?
Should occur within 30 minutes. All deception should be revealed with info about the other conditions + opportunity to ask questions.
What is protection from harm?
Should be effective aftercare - include counselling or referrals to other professionals
What is confidentiality?
Pts should be referred to as numbers, letter or pseudo-names
Locations and organisations must be protected
What is competence?
Must maintain up to date CPD and be aware of their responsibilities
When might informed consent be infringed?
In field experiments as people do not know they are in an experiment, or its aim
Naturalistic observations as people are unaware that they are being observed
How might informed consent be resolved?
Have it as a lab experiment
Seek prior general consent
Seek presumptive consent
When might deception be infringed?
Knowing aim of the study might change the results due to demand characteristics
How might deception be resolved?
Debrief ASAP
Remind of rights to withdraw
Seek retrospective consent
When might distress be infringed?
A psychologist must never knowingly expose a pt to harm or stress, but sometimes they do this unknowingly when harm is unforeseeable
How might distress be resolved?
Active intervention - stop experiment with vulnerable pts
What are the three reasons for inferential statistical testing?
Type of data
Difference or relationship
Design
What are the inferential statistical tests?
Chi square Sign test
Mann Whitney Wilcoxon Spearman’s Rho
Unrelated T Test Related T Test Pearson’s R
Can Simon Make Wonderful Singers Universally Receive Praise
How do you successfully read the sign table?
Write out a table displaying the before and after scores of each pt and record whether there is a positive difference or a negative difference
Work out your calculated value (s) by adding up all your plus, then all your negatives. Select the smallest value of signs. This is S.
The calculated value must be equal to or less than the critical value.
N is the total number of + and -. Move along the row to the correct one/two tailed test and probability to find the critical value.
What do we do if our results are significant?
We reject our null hypothesis and accept our experimental hypothesis
How do effective psychotherapies impact the economy?
Allows people with disorders to stay in work, contribute to the economy through taxation and not claim benefits. Absence from work costs businesses a large amount of money. Successful research may increase investment in research in the UK which will have a positive effect on the economy.
How does EWT impact the economy?
Court cases are expensive, and if they are abandoned due to errors in EWT then money is wasted. If research can increase the likelihood that EWT is accurate this will make best use of personnel and resources. May increase investment into research in the UK which will have a positive effect on the economy.
How does research into the role of the father impact the economy?
If the father earns less than the mother he can look after the child and the mother will pay more tax. Gender pay gap is closed more if both mothers and fathers are encouraged to be part of the workforce as employees value both equally. Parental leave is shared and both will contribute to the economy.
What is peer review?
In order for the research findings to be shared, they need to be published in academic journals, so it must undergo a quality control process. This involves reviewing the researcher’s methodology and making sure the research is credible, valid, reliable and non susceptible to ethical criticism
What is the peer review process?
Scientists study something then write about their results. Journal editor receives an article and sends reviewer comments to the scientists who may then revise and resubmit the article for further review. Editor then sends it out for peer review, who read the article and provide feedback to the editor. If it finally meets editorial and peer standards it is published in a journal.
How many peer reviewers are there usually?
1 - 3 other anonymous psychologists who are experts in the same field of research
What will the peer reviewers consider?
Whether the research method used was suitable
Adequate controls have been used to eliminate extraneous variables
The scientific procedure has been followed
The data collected is appropriate and accurately recorded
The interpretation of the findings
What are the disadvantages of peer review?
It is a flawed process as peer reviewers can be biassed in their recommendations to the journal editor, which can result in valid research being rejected or questionable research being accepted.
What is institutional bias?
Certain prestigious institutions may have their work scrutinised less as there is a positive bias about their work whereas less prestigious institutions may be scrutinised unduly.
What is competition?
If there is no anonymity for the researchers, then experts who have conflicting research might not approve research
What is the file draw problem?
If only statistically significant findings are published, then findings that challenge existing research may be overlooked and not published
What is gender bias?
May still be a gender bias in the work produced by males v females in terms of how much is published in prestigious journals
What are the advantages of peer review?
It allocates funding to worthy institutions. This means that high quality research centres are rewarded for research and given additional resources
It allows for scientific fraud to be identified before publication, so fraudulent research is less likely to exist in the public domain.
