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Psychology > Research methods booklet three > Flashcards

Research methods booklet three Flashcards

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1
Q

What is nominal data?

A

A simple frequency count for distinct categories when something can only belong to one category

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2
Q

What is ordinal data?

A

Where numbers can be placed in ascending or descending rank order. We do not know the true intervals between each position.

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3
Q

What is interval data?

A

Measurements are taken from a scale where each unit is the same size and the gap between each unit is fixed and equal. This is the most sophisticated type of data

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4
Q

What is a strength of nominal data?

A

Mode average.
Easy to generate from closed questions and large amounts of data can be collected quickly.

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5
Q

What is a weakness of nominal data?

A

Because it does not give a numerical score for each pt, this crude type of data does not permit sensitive analysis

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6
Q

What is a strength of ordinal data?

A

Mode + Median average
Indicates relative values on a linear scale instead of just totals, so it is more informative than nominal data

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7
Q

What is a weakness of ordinal data?

A

Subjective data as scaled data is open to interpretation. For example, on a scale of 1 - 5 of attractiveness, 4 could mean different things to different people

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8
Q

What is a strength of interval data?

A

Mode, median and mean average
More informative as points are directly comparable because they are all of equal value.
Scientific measures used to record the distance between values are highly reliable

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9
Q

What is a weakness of interval data?

A

Interval scales that do not contain scientific measurements means that there is no absolute baseline to the scale, so scoring 0 doesn’t means pts don’t possess the variable, just that the scale doesn’t measure it

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10
Q

Why do we have to complete statistical testing?

A

Researchers use statistical tests to determine the likelihood that the difference or relationship they have found has occurred due to chance

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11
Q

Why do we use the significance level of p _< 0.05?

A

We are willing to accept the 1 in 20 likelihood that the results could be down to chance factors. We are 95% confident that we have a true relationship or difference

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12
Q

What is a type I error?

A

When we wrongfully accept the experimental hypothesis. We believe that there is a difference or relationship when actually no such relationship exists. This is known as a false positive or an error of optimism. This occurs when the probability level is too wide.

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13
Q

What is a type II error?

A

When we wrongfully accept the null hypothesis, when in fact a relationship does exist. This is known as a false negative and occurs when the probability level was too narrow.

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14
Q

How does the chosen significance level cause errors?

A

p<0.05 strikes an acceptable balance between a type 1 or type 2 error. The stricter the significance level the more likely it is to make a type 2 error. The less stringent the more likely we are to make a type 1 error.

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15
Q

What is reliability?

A

How well research can be replicated at another time. It is the consistency of the research findings.

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16
Q

What is external reliability?

A

Producing the same results each time the test is carried out both over time and from each individual who takes it

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17
Q

What is internal reliability?

A

This is concerned with the consistency within a test. It is usually associated with questionnaires and tests, ensuring different questions are all measuring the same thing

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18
Q

What is observer reliability?

A

When 2 or more observers produce the same record of their observations

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19
Q

What is the split half method to assess reliability?

A

Compares a person’s performance on two halves of a test or questionnaire. You would expect a person’s performance on the first half of the test to be consistent with their performance on the second half of the test. This assesses internal reliability.

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20
Q

What is the test retest method of assessing reliability?

A

Where the test is repeated several times using the same pts. you would expect the same or very similar results each time from the same individuals. You would correlate the results and obtain a strong positive correlation. This assesses external reliability.

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21
Q

What is inter rater reliability?

A

Where the observations of two or more observers are compared for similarity. The observers would be trained in the use of a coding system so they can identify exactly what they are looking for. You would hope to obtain a strong positive correlation. This assesses observer reliability.

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22
Q

What is correlational analysis?

A

This could be a relationship between two halves of a test, two observer’s observations, the results of a test when repeated again. If there is reliability then we would expect a high correlation of at least 0.8.

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23
Q

How can you improve reliability?

A

Take multiple measurements - making a mean average reduces the impact of anomalous scores
Use of standardised procedures - this would allow for more careful replication which will verify whether the findings are consistent
Train researchers carefully - Make sure you specify what counts as key behaviours, video some and train researchers carefully to create consistency.

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24
Q

What is validity?

A

The extent to which research is measuring what it intends to measure

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25
Q

What is internal validity?

A

The extent to which our findings are due to the manipulation of the IV and not any other uncontrolled variables

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26
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

A type of external validity that concerns the extent to which research findings hold true over time

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27
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

The extent to which an experimental effect can be generalised from the study to other settings and situations

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28
Q

What is population validity?

A

The extent to which findings can be generalised from the sample tested to other populations

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29
Q

What is face validity?

A

The extent to which research looks as though it is doing what it claims to on the surface level

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30
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

The extent to which a new measure compares to a previously validated measure

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31
Q

How do confounding variables affect internal validity?

A

These are uncontrolled variables which could cause the change seen in the DV

32
Q

How do demand characteristics affect internal validity?

A

An aspect of the research situation which leads pts to guess the aim and change their behaviour accordingly. It also relates to unnatural behaviour which ultimately compromises the collected data.

33
Q

How do investigator effects affect internal validity?

A

Any influence of the researcher’s behaviour on pts/data/outcome. For example, the way they speak or dress, or even their age and gender.

34
Q

What is mundane realism?

A

The degree to which the setting, the task or procedure reflects real life

35
Q

How would you assess face validity?

A

The eyeball test
This involves experts examining the content of a test to see if it looks like it measures what it is supposed to measure.

36
Q

How would you assess concurrent validity?

A

Compare the new method/test with an already well established one which claims to measure the same variables. Pts would complete the new and older tests and scores would then be correlated. Positive correlation means the test has concurrent validity

37
Q

How would you assess temporal validity?

A

Repeat the study in several different times to see if the experimental effect is still evident

38
Q

How would you assess ecological validity?

A

If similar results are found in a different setting then the study has high ecological validity.

39
Q

How would you improve concurrent validity?

A

If the new method does not correspond to an established measure then it can be tweaked or refined and then reassessed against the valid measure

40
Q

How would you improve internal validity?

A

Single blind technique
Double blind technique

41
Q

How would you improve face validity?

A

Eye ball test by experts
Get an expert in the particular field of investigation to judge the content of a test or method on a surface level will help raise face validity. This helps ensure that the test is appropriate and relevant to the field of the study

42
Q

How would you improve population validity?

A

Use large samples. Stratified sampling guarantees a more representative sample that can be generalised much further as it makes sure various groups are used.

43
Q

How would you improve temporal validity?

A

Replicate research to show that with periodic testing then a test has temporal validity

44
Q

How would you improve ecological validity?

A

Replicate research in different settings and diverse methods

45
Q

What are the parts of reporting psychological investigations?

A

The title
The abstract
The introduction
The method
The results
The discussion
Appendices
References

46
Q

What is the title?

A

A concise but informative sentence which lets the reader know exactly what the report is about.

47
Q

What is the abstract?

A

A brief 150 - 200 word summary of the report. It should be a self contained, clear and concise synopsis of the research. It will briefly mention reference to past research in the area, the methods used, the aim, the findings and the conclusion

48
Q

What is the introduction?

A

A section which introduces the reader to the background of the study. It will make reference to past research in the area as well as relevant theories. This enables the reader to place the study in context. The second part of the introduction explains the ideas behind the research before going on to make specific hypotheses and fully operationalising the variables

49
Q

What is the method?

A

Describes how the study is conducted so it can be replicated in the future. Should relate explicitly to which research method is used.
Should include a brief outline of the experimental design and any control measures, the variables, key features of the participant sample and the sampling technique used, a step by step account of the procedure and reference to ethics.

50
Q

What are the results?

A

A section which clearly reports the findings of the study and references how the data is analysed. Descriptive statistics will display measures of central tendency and dispersion in clearly labelled tables. This is enhanced with graphs. Inferential statistics include more detailed analysis of the data using inferential testing. The null hypothesis is either accepted or rejected.

51
Q

What is the discussion?

A

A summary of the results and an explanation of what the findings actually mean. There will be a reference to past research and whether the findings of the current investigation are similar. The implication of the study may be discussed. Reference may also be made to evaluate comments about the research and suggestions for future research.

52
Q

What is the appendices?

A

A section where raw data will be given. It will also include examples of any written instructions or methods of gathering data.

53
Q

What are the references?

A

All cited research will be listed alphabetically, which gives the reader an opportunity to explore the area in more detail. They are normally listed using the Harvard system.

54
Q

What are the seven features of science?

A

Objective
Empiricism
Replicability
Falsifiability
Paradigm
Popper’s Hypothetico-Deductive model
Kuhn’s paradigm and paradigm shift

55
Q

What is objective as a feature of science?

A

Research is not biased. It is not affected by the researcher’s opinion or feelings, which can occur unconsciously. Uses methods not open to interpretation.

56
Q

What is empiricism as a feature of science?

A

Evidence should be gathered through direct observation. Evidence is physical and observable. It should be tested through experiments rather than a reasoned argument.

57
Q

What is replicability as a feature of science?

A

The ability to repeat a study and achieve the same findings from the original study. This is achieved through standardised procedures and a high degree of control.

58
Q

What is falsifiability as a feature of science?

A

Findings should be possible to refute as science advances through rejection of a theory and scientists should aim to accept the null hypothesis.

59
Q

What is paradigm as a feature of science?

A

An agreed subject matter and set of procedures. Any science is based on a set of shared assumptions so when there is strong evidence against a current paradigm, a new one replaces it.

60
Q

What are the elements of Popper’s Hypothetico-Deductive model as a science?

A

Theory construction and hypothesis testing
The scientific process
The generation of laws and principles

61
Q

Popper’s Hypothetico-Deductive model: Theory construction and hypothesis testing?

A

Popper stated that the key theory of science was creating falsifiable theories. Scientists should test their theories in as many different ways as possible to find disproof. Only when we find counter evidence can we be certain that the theory is not true and needs to be refined

62
Q

Popper’s Hypothetico-Deductive model: the scientific process?

A

An observation is made about a phenomena in the world
A theory is developed to explain the observation and a hypothesis is developed in line with the theory
A hypothesis is tested using empirical methods
Results are analysed to evaluate whether the hypothesis is supported or not

63
Q

Popper’s Hypothetico-Deductive model: however?

A

If a hypothesis is consistently supported by empirical findings, the theory is still not certain to be true. There could always be exception or disproof that has not yet been found. Scientists should therefore create and test as many different hypotheses as possible so we can be more confident in creating general laws

64
Q

Popper’s Hypothetico-Deductive model: Generation of laws?

A

When a theory has been tested and retested and has never been disproved, it is developed into laws and principles. Scientific laws are universal and invariable.

65
Q

What is Kuhn’s paradigm and paradigm shift?

A

Kuhn argued that Popper’s view of scientific progress was too idealistic. Kuhn claimed that in reality, scientists tend to cling to existing theories, even in the face of contradictory evidence. Science is therefore more resistant to change and requires a complete revolution in order to progress.

66
Q

In Kuhn’s view, what are the stages of development of a science?

A

Pre science - There is no generally accepted paradigm, and there are several different opinions on the best approach to be taken - this is psychology
Normal science - One paradigm is dominant and research seeks to support it
Revolutionary science - Evidence mounts against the dominant paradigm and a new paradigm becomes dominant

67
Q

What are the two techniques of analysing qualitative data?

A

Thematic analysis
Content analysis

68
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

Summarise data without losing its essential meaning
Researcher will start with a hypothesis
Data is collected through interviewing pts
Transcripts are made of the interview process
Researcher tries to identify common themes and use direct quotations to support their findings

69
Q

What is content analysis?

A

Tries to quantify frequency of themes.
You become increasingly familiar with the data by going through it several times.
This helps identify relevant themes / coding units that can be used to dissect the data
Researcher works through data again and uses a behavioural checklist to tally down the frequency that each coding units appears
Provides nominal data that can be displayed in graphs and statistically analysed

70
Q

What are the advantages of thematic and content analysis?

A

Both are easy to perform and inexpensive that works with both secondary and primary data
Can cross verify results from other research methods and can trace effects over time
Reliable due to identified behavioural categories and standardised procedures
Ecologically valid as data comes from real life so more likely to be authentic

71
Q

What are the disadvantages of thematic analysis?

A

Cannot state cause and effect as conditions are not typically controlled
Views on society are limited by availability of material so observed trends may not actually reflect reality
Purely descriptive so does not reveal underlying reasons for behaviour
Hard to summarise in depth data when using direct quotations, making it harder for others to understand

72
Q

What are the features of experiments?

A

IV + DV
Experimental hypothesis
Experimental design
2 conditions of experiment
Control of extraneous variables
Ethics

73
Q

What are the features of observations?

A

Type of observation
Behavioural categories
Reliability (inter - rater)
Type of sampling of behaviour
Ethical issues

74
Q

What are the features of self reports?

A

Structured interview, semi structured or questionnaire
Open/close/rating scale questions
Reduction of interviewer effects/bias
Ethical issues

75
Q

What are the features of correlations?

A

Correlational hypothesis / relationship
Sample of pts
Covariable 1 and covariable 2
Numerical measure
Data handling and statistics
Ethical issues

76
Q

What are the features of case studies?

A

How you would collect data
How you would obtain sample
Reduce investigator effects
Type of data + analysis
Ethical issues

Psychology (9 decks)

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