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Approaches Flashcards

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1
Q

What is included in the origins of psychology?

A

Wundt, introspection and the emergence of psychology as a science.

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2
Q

Who was Wilhelm Wundt?

A

Cited as one of the founders of psychology and believed the human mind could be studied scientifically
He founded the institute of experimental psychology in 1879 in Germany. He was credited with making psychology more scientific.
He aimed to study the structure of the human mind and break them down into basic elements - structuralism.
He used a key technique called introspection.

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3
Q

What is introspection?

A

Investigating events by examining thoughts and feelings as a form of data collection. Systematic analysis of our own conscious experience of a stimulus. Allows us to report our own inner thoughts and feelings in terms of intensity, duration and quality.

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3
Q

What did Wundt believe?

A

All human behaviours and mental processes can be studied this way in the controlled setting of his laboratory. He did claim some complex mental processes may not be suited to such controlled environments. His study of mental and emotional processes relied on a concept known as empiricism.

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4
Q

What is empiricism?

A

Means that knowledge and abilities come from observation and experience alone, rather than innate. Believes that all behaviour has causes, and therefore behaviour can be predicted. To explore such assumptions, the scientific method was used.

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5
Q

What is the scientific method?

A

It is the hypothetico-Deductive model

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6
Q

It is the hypothetico-Deductive model?

A

An observation is made of a phenomena in the world.
A theory is developed to explain the observation and a hypothesis is developed.
A hypothesis is tested using empirical methods.
Results are analysed to evaluate whether the hypothesis is supported or not.
This is used to refine or modify the theory.

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7
Q

What features of science could Wundt’s work be characterised by?

A

FROGS
Falsifiable
Replicable
Objective
General laws
Systematic

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8
Q

What does falsifiable mean?

A

All theories and research must be capable of being tested and potentially disproved, which is more scientific.

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9
Q

What does replicable mean?

A

Research procedures should be capable of being repeated to check the consistency of the findings - standardised.

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10
Q

What does objective mean?

A

Should be observable and measurable on an agreed scale so it is not open to interpretation.

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11
Q

What are general laws?

A

Basic generalisable principles about human or animal behaviour

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12
Q

What does systematic mean?

A

Recordings are carried out in a controlled and orderly manner using direct observations

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13
Q

Are the origins of psychology scientific?

A

It has led to useful general laws. Hunter in 2003 used introspection with teenagers to identify what makes them happy or unhappy. By questioning their own thoughts, they were able to identify that when energies were focussed on challenging tasks, they were far more upbeat.
Led to psychology getting more attention as a discipline.

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14
Q

Are the origins of psychology subjective?

A

Introspection introduces personal opinions and beliefs. Limited when trying to create general laws about the causes of behaviour in this manner.
Lack of numerical data limits the statistical analysis. FMRI scans could be used more objectively to detect changes in the brain.
Shows introspection lacks scientific rigour.

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15
Q

Is the origins of psychology helpful in improving our understanding?

A

Wundt tried to apply the rigour of natural sciences to the study of human behaviour. He used systematic observation and experimentation on human and animal behaviour using an evidence based approach. This helps our understanding.

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16
Q

Is Wundt’s scientific approach in the origins of psychology generalisable?

A

Introspection is in artificially contrived environments fail to fully represent real life experiences, so lack ecological validity.
Similar with other methods designed to measure thoughts, intentions and behaviour in a scientific way.
Control needed to make this scientific takes away from the realism of the task.

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17
Q

What are the assumptions of the biological approach?

A

All behaviour is driven by physical factors and has its roots in biological functioning.
Suggests that genetic factors, biological structures and neurochemistry seems to drive all of our behaviour.
Emphasises our nature in shaping behaviour.
It is probably the most scientific as it uses precise measurements.

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18
Q

What is evolution?

A

The gradual change within a species over several generations in response to environmental pressures.

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19
Q

What is natural selection?

A

The process where inherited characteristics that enhance survival are passed on to the next generation - this occurs over thousands of generations.

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20
Q

What does adaptive mean?

A

Refers to a behaviour or trait that will increase the chance of survival and boost reproductive success

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21
Q

How does evolution and behaviour link to the biological approach?

A

According to Darwin, natural selection ensures that only those behaviours that are adaptive will be naturally selected and passed down through generations.
Seligman suggests that there was a biological preparedness to phobias of certain things due to an innate tendency to rapidly acquire a phobia to potentially harmful phenomena.
Some behaviours are seen as highly adaptive - showing a fear to a massive spider would lead to better survival rates.

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22
Q

What is a genotype?

A

The genetic constitution of an individual. The variation in human genotype can account for enormous variation across the species.

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23
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

The result of interactions between inherited characteristics and inherited material and the environment - this is then expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics.

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24
Q

What is PKU research in reference to the biological approach?

A

A disorder that can cause learning difficulties in those who carry the genotype. It causes a deficiency of the enzyme that is needed to process phenylalanine and a dangerous build up of this can develop if a person eats protein rich food, which can damage nerve cells in the brain. If detected early enough, a child can be placed on a restricted diet. Genotype + environment leads to the phenotype.

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25
Q

Genetic inheritance of OCD in reference to the biological approach?

A

Polygenic condition and an individual with one of the candidate genes may experience OCD. Nestadt did a twin study and found a concordance rate of 67% for MZ twins but only 31% for DZ twins. Suggests that the closer the genetic relationship to a sufferer, the greater the risk of developing OCD.

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26
Q

How do twin studies link to the biological approach?

A

Psychologists use them to investigate the role of genetics in behaviour by comparing the concordance of MZ and DZ twins. If the MZ rate is higher than the DZ rate then genetic factors do play a role in behaviour. If concordance rate is not 100%, it suggests that the environment must have a part to play in behaviour.

27
Q

How do biological structures in the brain relate to the biological approach?

A

It tries to map the relationship between the various areas of the brain and their functions. This is made more difficult by the brain’s plasticity.
Areas were historically identified by using case studies of brain damaged patients, but nowadays scans are used.

28
Q

What are some biological structures in the brain?

A

Broca’s area controls speech production.
Wernicke’s area is responsible for language comprehension.
An example of plasticity is the London taxi drivers case

29
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemical messengers released by a pre-synaptic neuron and passed to a post-synaptic neuron when they connect at a synapse. If the receiving neuron contains the correct receptors then the neurotransmitters will dock via a lock and key system. Ig the neurotransmitter is inhibitory it will make the receiving neuron less likely to fire whereas if it has an excitatory function it will make the neuron more likely to fire.

30
Q

What is GABA’s effect on behaviour?

A

Inhibits the activity of neurons in most areas of the brain. During synaptic transmission it combines with GABA-A receptors on the post-synaptic neuron and reduces its firing rate. Anti anxiety drugs like Valium boost the power of GABA and make us feel more relaxed.

31
Q

What is adrenaline’s effect on behaviour?

A

Involved in the fight or flight response. It is linked to the emergency response needed when we face danger. It activates a whole host of behaviours in stressful times which prepare us for rapid action.

32
Q

What is serotonin’s effect on behaviour?

A

Implicated in the development of OCD as it is believed to regulate mood and impacts the feeling of happiness. Low levels are linked to anxieties in OCD.

33
Q

Has the biological approach benefitted society?

A

Accessible ways to treat mental health problems.
Insight into causes of mental disorders has led to effective drug treatments. eg anti-psychotics given to people with schizophrenia quickly stabilised behaviour in up to 85%

34
Q

Does research for the biological approach lack validity?

A

Research has taken place on animals, which lacks biological continuity. Humans have language acquisition device that no other animals possess, making human behaviour unique. Questions moral and ethical implications involved in its research.

35
Q

Is the biological approach scientific?

A

Objective and falsifiable methods to identify biological roots in behaviours. NT levels can be measured through cerebral-spinal fluid and examination of urine. Biochemical actions are more likely to be trustworthy, allowing for continued opportunities for research.

36
Q

Is there evidence for the biological approach?

A

Maguire used MRI scans to discover that London cabbies had developed more grey matter in their hippocampus than matched control groups. Positive correlation with the length of time and structural differences in the hippocampus.

37
Q

Does the biological approach have methodological issues?

A

In the Teubar study, younger soldiers with brain damage recovered more than older soldiers (60% under 20 showed big improvements compared to only 20% of over 26), and a negative correlation was found between age and recovery. However we cannot establish cause and effect as other factors such as amount of conflict soldiers had witnessed could have damaged recovery.

38
Q

What is an introduction to the learning approach?

A

Largely based on the work of Pavlov, Skinner and Watson. They rejected current ideas and focussed on environmental determinism.

39
Q

What are the assumptions of the learning approach?

A

All behaviour is learned and all we have at birth is the capacity to learn.
At the extreme nurture end of the nature/nurture debate.
Also argues that for behaviour to be scientific it should be observable, which can be objectively measured, rather than cognitive processes which can only be inferred.

40
Q

How does the learning approach assume we learn behaviour?

A

Consequences
Imitation
Association

41
Q

What are the two main schools of thought in the learning approach?

A

The behaviourist approach and the social learning theory.

42
Q

Pavlov’s research into classical conditioning for the learning approach?

A

He wanted to see if dogs could salivate in response to a bell. He assumed that dogs had a reflex hard wired to salivate when they are presented with food. He carefully measured the volume of saliva produced from dogs in response to food and bell.

43
Q

What is the process of classical conditioning through Pavlov’s dogs for behaviourism in the learning approach?

A

Food (Unconditioned stimulus) = Salivation (Unconditioned response)
Bell (neutral stimulus) + Food (unconditioned stimulus) = Salivation (unconditioned response)
Bell (conditioned stimulus) = Salivation (conditioned response)

44
Q

What does extinction mean in terms of Pavlov’s dogs and the learning approach?

A

If the conditioned stimulus is continually presented without the unconditioned stimulus then the conditioned response gradually dies out or extinguishes - salivation died out when ne food was presented

45
Q

What does spontaneous recovery mean in terms of Pavlov’s dogs and the learning approach?

A

If a conditioned response is not reinforced, it becomes extinguished. but after a period of rest the response may suddenly reappear - salivation returned to bell after re-pairing with food

46
Q

What does discrimination mean in terms of Pavlov’s dogs and the learning approach?

A

The conditioned response is produced only by presentation of the original stimulus, it does not extend to similar stimuli - dogs only salivated after certain tone of bell

47
Q

What does generalisation mean in terms of Pavlov’s dogs and the learning approach?

A

Extension of the conditioned response from the original stimulus to a similar stimuli - salivating at any bell

48
Q

What does one trial learning mean in terms of Pavlov’s dogs and the learning approach?

A

When conditioning occurs immediately, after only one trial

49
Q

What is Skinner’s research for operant conditioning for behaviourism in the learning approach?

A

Skinner’s theory is that the likelihood of future behaviour is determined by the consequences of past behaviour. He used a ‘Skinner box’ with a rat and used consequences to determine whether behaviour is repeated. It didn’t take long for the rat to realise that pressing a lever would dispense food. The act of pressing the lever would switch off the negative current - consequences ensured it would repeat the action. A light would be switched on prior to electric current so pressing lever was negatively enforced.

50
Q

What is a primary reinforcer?

A

Anything that fulfils a basic or biological need and results in the frequency of that behaviour increasing.

51
Q

What is a secondary reinforcer?

A

Anything that gains its power by association with a primary reinforcer and results in the frequency of that behaviour increasing.

52
Q

What is continuous reinforcement?

A

Rewarding every time a behaviour is shown, leading to an increase in that behaviour.

53
Q

What is partial reinforcement?

A

When a response is only rewarded part of the time. A fixed ratio is when you give a reward after a specified number of responses. A variable ratio is a reward after an unpredictable amount of responses.

54
Q

What is positive reinforcement in Skinner’s research for behaviourism?

A

Increasing frequency through pleasant consequences. When the rat pressed the lever it got some food.

55
Q

What is negative reinforcement in Skinner’s research for behaviourism?

A

Increasing the frequency of desired behaviour by taking away something unpleasant. When the rat pressed the lever it turned off the electric current which electrified the floor of the cage.

56
Q

What is punishment in Skinner’s research for behaviourism?

A

Decreasing the frequency of desired behaviour by giving an unpleasant consequence. The rat received an electric shock instead of food when pressing the lever. Very quickly, the rat stopped.

57
Q

Is there evidence for the behaviourist approach?

A

Watson and Raynor’s Little Albert study

58
Q

Is the behaviourist approach scientific?

A

Uses objective and falsifiable methods to study only observable behaviour that underline stimulus-response links. eg: counting number of times rat pressed lever. This means it is more reliable.

59
Q

Are there methodological issues with the behaviourist approach?

A

Skinner’s boxes were used with rats and pigeons so difficult to generalise findings.

60
Q

Does the behaviourist approach have practical applications?

A

Therapies such as flooding and sd have been developed from cc and oc principles that are effective in treating phobias. SD has been 91% effective.

61
Q

Does the behaviourist approach suffer from environmental determinism?

A

Believes behaviour is determined by past experiences or environmental factors. Incomplete explanation as it ignores the role of genetics.

62
Q

Is there supporting research for classical conditioning in terms of behaviourism?

A

Little Albert study by Watson and Raynor.

63
Q

Is there theoretical flaws of classical conditioning in terms of behaviourism?

A

Other theories such as the social learning theory and it is difficult to tell whether behaviour is caused by punishment or reward

64
Q

Are there practical applications of operant conditioning in terms of behaviourism?

A

UK government put 5p levy on plastic bags which reduced plastic bag usage by 59% in the first year. Sugar tax in soft drinks reduced purchase by 10% in the first year.

65
Q

Is operant conditioning environmentally reductionist in terms of behaviourism?

A

Works strictly on a stimulus response basis, claiming no cognitive processes occur between reinforcement and repetition of behaviour. Social learning theory believes that thinking does occur, making it more holistic.

66
Q

What are some contributions of behaviourist psychologists?

A

Gave appreciation of how behaviour is learnt and environmentally determined.
Large scale data gathering and generalisation allowed for development of laws and principles.
Gave us theories and laws of learning.
Emphasised importance of consequences.
Emphasised role of reinforcement and punishment.
Insistence on objectivity and study of overt behaviour raised its scientific status.

Psychology (9 decks)

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