Research Methods and Data Collection Flashcards
What is a Case Study (Definition)?
- Research method
- Research that produces an in-depth detailed account of a case (≠ research on populations)
- Investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, with the researcher having no control over the situation
- The boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident
- Most evidence comes from interviews and documents
What is the Unit of Analysis of a Case study?
- Various Possibilities: Decision process (investment), Event (crisis), particular state or condition (workplace culture)…
- Almost always involves a firm or an organisation.
What is an Ethnography (Definition)?
- Research Method
- Originally associated with Anthropology.
- The researcher has DIRECT and SOCIAL contacts with the agents she study.
- Recognises the ROLE of THEORY as precursor, medium and outcome.
- Gives CENTRALITY to CULTURE: how populations evolve from inherited cultures, and the practices associated to life in public spheres.
- Has a CRITICAL FOCUS: critically assesses taken-for-granted meanings and everyday practices.
What is the Purpose of Case Study?
Use this empirical evidence to make an original contribution to knowledge
- Discover new topics and contribute to a new theory in the exploratory phase of research
- Test and compare theories in the explanatory phase of research
When and Why to use Case Study?
- To answer “How” or “Why” questions
- When the investigation has little control over events
- The focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within a real-life context
What are the different Approaches to Case Study?
1- POSITIVIST: tests and refines hypotheses or propositions in the real world.
2- INTERPRETIVE: attempts to understand phenomena through the meanings that people assign to them.
3- CRITICAL: questions current practices and taken-for-granted assumptions.
What are the different Types/Categories of Case Study?
A- SINGLE: often entails the study of a unique, rare, critical, or hard-to-access phenomenon.
B- MULTIPLE: involves the replication and comparison of the cases.
1- REPRESENTATIVE / TYPICAL
- Captures the conditions of a commonplace situation.
- Informs about the experiences of average persons or institutions.
2- CRITICAL
- Tests for a significant and often well-formulated theory.
- Used to confirm, challenge or extend the theory.
- Example: MIS Implementation (Seminar).
3- REVELATORY
- Explores a previously non-accessible phenomenon.
C1- LONGITUDINAL
- Explores the causal mechanisms playing a role in the patterns of transition over time.
C2- EXTREME/UNIQUE
- Documents the precise nature of a phenomenon not well understood, rare or unique.
- Example: Mann Gulch disaster:
=> Studied Group Behaviour under adverse conditions.
=> Explored the precise nature of group disintegration mechanisms under extreme conditions.
What are the Advantages of Case Study?
+ FACE VALIDITY: a case study is a real story that most researchers can identify with
+ Allow researchers to TEST THEORY in messy real life situations. It enables the researchers to get ‘close to the action’
What are the Disadvantages of Case Study?
- It can be DIFFICULT TO GAIN ACCESS to a targeted groups of companies, due to this scepticism about the research benefits or their reluctance to disclose information
- Since the researcher has NO CONTROL the researcher is highly DEPENDENT ON THE PERTURBATIONS in the organisation (resignations, takeovers…)
- TIME CONSUMING
- YOUNG RESEARCHER might be SWAMPED when confronted with the large amount of data
- It can be difficult to KNOW WHAT TO FOCUS ON
When and why use Ethnographic Research?
- When an IN-DEPTH UNDERSTANDING of the subject studied WITHIN its CONTEXT is needed.
- To QUESTION TAKEN-FOR-GRANTED ASSUMPTIONS. This is allowed by the orientation of the ethnographer.
What is the role of the Ethnographer?
- Sliding scale from Involvement to Detachment; however, the ‘complete observer’ role is not appropriate.
- GETTING INVOLVED helps to gain CREDIBILITY and TRUST.
- REFLEXIVE PERSPECTIVE: intervention can distort and disturb; the responses to these distortions reveal the underlying social order.
- Participation might be problematic for illegal activities.
What are the Approaches to Ethnography?
1 - HOLISTIC SCHOOL
- Empathy and Identification are needed.
- The ethnographer is a sponge that soaks up language and culture.
2- SEMIOTIC SCHOOL
- No need for Empathy.
- The ethnographer must search and analyse symbolic forms (words, institutions, behaviours) and the webs of significance that people weave.
3- CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY
- Sees ethnography as an emergent process of dialogue.
- Studies hidden agendas and power centres.
What are the Quality Criteria of Case Study? (How is the quality of a Case Study assessed?)
- Sample size and confidence level are meaningless here
For Positivist Approaches:
- CONSTRUCT VALIDITY: the degree to which influences can be made from the operationalisation of concepts to theoretical constructs
- INTERNAL VALIDITY: excluding alternative explanations
- EXRTERNAL VALIDITY: the domain to which the findings of the study apply
- RELIABILITY: providing detailed accounts of data collection procedures
For Interpretive and Critical Approaches:
- Interesting case
- Contributes to knowledge
- Story and arguments are plausible
- Provides sufficient evidence
- Provides a clear description of procedures
- Recognises different perspectives
- Questions taken-for-granteed assumptions (for critical research)
What are Documents (Definition)?
- Documents are written recordings of statements or events.
- Documents can be reports, press releases, emails, blogs, pictures, websites…
- Documents can be personal, private or public.
- More and more documents are being stored in digital form. These usually contain a timestamp, giving details about date and location.
What is the purpose of Documents?
- They can serve as historical records.
- They can be seen as actors in some situations (e.g. a contract enforced in a court law).
What are the Advantages of using Documents?
+ Relatively CHEAP and QUICK to access.
+ Make things VISIBLE and TRACEABLE (e.g. a marketing plan reveals the thinking about the market and the company’s place at that time).
+ UNIQUE SOURCE OF INFO in some cases.
What are the Disdvantages of using Documents?
- Can be DIFFICULT TO ACCESS
- Need to be aware of the GENRE and its CONVENTIONS.
- QUALITY CRITERIA are not always easy to assess.
What are the Quality Criteria of Documents? (How is the quality of a Documents assessed?)
- AUTHENTICITY: is the evidence genuine and of unquestionable origin?
- CREDIBILITY: is the evidence free from error and distortion?
- REPRESENTATINESS: is the evidence typical of its kind? If not, is the extent of untypicality known?
- MEANING: is the evidence clear and comprehensive?
Are they any Ethical Considerations concerned with the use of Documents?
Ethical aspects must be considered when using personal/private information.
=> PERMISSION to use the material in one’s own work must be ASKED and GRANTED.
Example of Case Study?
- Markus, 1983 (she).
- Describes the implementation of a new FIS in a corporation.
- Divisional accountants resisted to the system, whereas corporate accountants were happy with the FIS.
- DATA COLLECTION: Interviews, Documentary Evidence, Memos.
- ARGUMENT: 3 main theories of resistance (i.e. people, systems, interaction of both) + interaction theory had superior explanatory and predictive power.
- GENERALISATION: results are not generalisable but offer insight + Interaction theory provides good insights but is probably not the only or best approach to explain and avoid resistance in all cases.
- QUALITY OF RESEARCH: good internal validity, plausibility and evidence thanks to triangulation + All parties had voice + Generalisation is questionable + Contributes to knowledge (especially through the intro of interaction theory).
What are Sources of Digital Data?
- Social Media
- Online Games
- Blogs
- Websites
What are the elements to consider when deciding whether to use digital sources and traditional methods online?
- ACCESS: is it possible to get physical access to participants? Do participants have easy access to a computer and a reliable internet connection?
- TECH-ABILITY: are participants likely to be comfortable using computer-mediated commutations for their discussions with the researcher?
- TOPIC: is the research topic bounded up with participants’ use of computers/the internent?
- ENVIRONMENT: is there anything in the participants’ environment that would make difficult for them to participate online/attend onsite?
- SENSITIVITY: are the discussions likely to cause distress? How would this be dealt online vs onsite?
- CONFIDENTIALITY: how does the approach to confidentiality relate to the decision online vs onsite?
- DATA HANDLING: does conducting the research online help handle and gather data?
- VISUAL CLUES: are visual/body language/context clues important in the research?
=> These considerations help determine WHEN and WHY use digital methods
What are the Advantages of Online Surveys?
\+ SPEED and VOLUME of Data Collection \+ Savings in COST \+ FLEXIBLE DESIGN (many types of questions) \+ Data ACCURACY \+ ACCESS to research population \+ ANONYMITY \+ Respondent ACCEPTABILITY
What are the Disadvantages of Online Surveys?
- SAMPLE BIAS
- NON-RESPONSE BIAS: when respondents differ in meaningful ways from non-respondents
- MEASUREMENT ERROR
- TECHNICAL PROBLEMS
- ETHICAL ISSUES
What are the different types of Online Interviews? What are the Pros & Cons of each method?
SYNCHRONOUS ENVIRONMENTS (i.e. DIRECT) Provide an experience similar to face-to-face interaction (e.g. chat room) \+ Low cost \+ Auto generated transcription - Technical issues
ASYNCHRONOUS ENVIRONMENTS (i.e. INDIRECT) Include emails, message boards... \+ Low cost \+ Auto generated transcription \+ Time to reflect included - Technical issues - Easy to ignore - No spontaneity
What are the types of interviews?
- STRUCTURED: - to aggregate replies of a representative group and GENERALISE findings to a population
- Standardised to avoid interviewer variability - to ensure RELIABILITY and VALIDITY
- SEMI-STRUCTURED: - Some pre-formulated open questions
- No strict adherence to questions
- Address the limitations of other types of interviews
- Most common in quali research
- UNSTRUCTURED: - No pre-formulated questions
- Some prompts to cover a RANGE OF TOPICS
- The informant DECIDES what is important
When and Why conduct Netnography?
- Particularly adapted to the study of an ONLINE COMMUNITY or ONLINE PHENOMENON
- If netnography focuses on the interactions online of a broader social phenomenon/culture, it should be coupled with a traditional ethnography
What are the 6 steps of Netnographic research project?
1- RESEACH PLANNING: definition of RQs, Social Sites or topics to investigates
2- ENTRÉE: community identification and selection
3- DATA COLLECTION: participant observation and data collection
4- INTERPRETATION: data analysis and iterative interpretation of findings
5- ENSURING ETHICAL STANDARDS
6- RESEARCH REPRESENTATION: write, present and report findings/theoretical/policy implications
Example of Netnography?
- Using Netnography for Marketing Research in Online Communities
- Kozinets, 2002
ARGUMENT
- Online communities devoted to consumption-related topics are a growing source of data for marketing research.
- Theses groups discuss and debate purchase and consumption decisions online.
- Netnography can be a useful, flexible, ethically sensitive, and unobtrusive method to study the language, motivations, consumption linkages and symbols of these consumption-oriented communities.
ILLUSTRATION
- Netnography was used to explore some of the meanings and symbol systems that surround contemporary coffee consumption.
- Entered an online coffee newsgroup.
- Led to useful insights for marketing research:
- There is a “snob appeal” to coffee knowledge
- Desire to understand coffee production
- Importance of authenticity and passion
IMPLICATIONS
- Businesses should conduct Online Research to monitor and indirectly influence brand equity in a positive manner.
- Opportunities for marketers to STUDY the TASTES, DESIRES and OTHER NEEDS of consumers.
CHALLENGES of CONDUCTING a NETNOGRAPHY
- Limitations draw from:
– Narrow focus on online communities
– Need for interpretive skills
– Lack of informant identifiers => difficult to generalise to larger groups.
=> Need for triangulation with other methods
What is Netnography (DEFINITION)?
- PARTICIPANT-OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH based on ONLINE FIELDWORK
- Netnography uses COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATIONS as a sources of data to arrive a the ethnographic understanding and representation of a culture or communal phenomenon
- Like traditional ethnography, it extends from participant observation to interviews, descriptive stats, archival data collection…
What are the Different Types of Sampling?
The sampling of informants in ethnography is often a combination of CONVENIENT and SNOWBALL SAMPLING.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING (<=> Chain Sampling <=> Referral Sampling)
- Non probability sampling technique.
- Recruit future subjects among acquaintances.
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING (<=> Judgmental Sampling <=> Selective Sampling <=> Subjective Sampling):
- Strategic way, samples are relevant to the research questions.
- Seek differences in characteristics.
THEORETICAL SAMPLING:
- The analysts jointly collects, codes and analyses his/her data.
- Based on this analysis, he/she decides what data to collect next and where to find them.
- Develops theory as it emerges.
- Data is collected until theoretical saturation.
What are the practical suggestions for interviews?
- Interview a VARIETY of people representing DIVERSE VIEWS.
- Construct an INTERVIEW GUIDE:
- Questions that consider alternative enquiries
- Be prepared to IMPROVISE specific questions depending on the respondent’s answers
- Avoid leading questions.
- Use MIRRORING, to focus on their world and language.
- Obtain INFORMED CONSENT before the interview.
What are the suggestions for sampling interviewees?
SELECTION depends on:
- Groups that researcher wants to cover.
- Ability to answer questions.
- Ability to be reached.
What are the limitations of interviews (in general)?
- ARTIFICIALITY: interrogation of a complete stranger under time pressure.
- LACK OF TRUST: The respondent can choose not too divulge TOO SENSITIVE info –> Data gathering remains incomplete.
- LACK OF TIME: Data is INCOMPLETE + time pressure can make subjects create OPINIONS.
- LEVEL OF ENTRY: CRUCIAL, since it affects the likeliness of the researcher to be able to interview superiors, people from different interest groups.
- ELITE BIAS: Interviewing only STARS in the organisation can induce bias.
- HAWTHORNE EFFECT: The interviewer might INFLUENCE the relationship he wants to study.
- AMBIGUITY OF LANGUAGE: The interviewer is not always certain that the respondent fully understands the questions.
- INTERVIEWS CAN GO WRONG: If interviewer OFFENDS respondents.
Example of Ethnography
- Kozinets, 2011
- Star Trek’s Culture of Consumption
- Collected data from 3 sites over 20 months, including participant observation at various fan gatherings, and 65 email interviews.
- Describes a group of devoted consumers constructing reality rather than merely consuming a product.
- Develops an understanding of entertainment consumption: he suggests that consumers use these products to construct their identities and their sense of what matters in life.
What is Fieldwork (Definition)?
- A way to gather qualitative data
- Observation of people in site
<=> Participant Observation
What is a FOCUS GROUP (definition) ?
- 6 to 12 respondent are brought together to DISCUSS a specific topic
- The moderator DIRECTS the interaction, but participants can engage in THOUGHTFUL DISCUSSION
What is the purpose of a FOCUS GROUP?
- Get collective views on a certain topic of interest
- Interest on how INDIVIDUALS discuss a certain issue as MEMBERS OF A GROUP
- Group discussion can HELP ELICIT A VARIETY OF VIEWS and STIMULATE participants to articulate opinions
What are the pros and cons of FOCUS GROUP?
PROS
- Elicit OPINIONS, ATTITUDES and BELIEFS held by members of a group.
- Level of control between that of participant observation and individual interviews.
CONS
- EXPENSIVE and DIFFICULT to organise.
- GROUP DYNAMICS:
- Need to control talkative respondents
- Need to obtain info from unconfident ones
- Tendency to look for CONSENSUS
- Not suitable for SENSITIVE TOPICS.
- Transcription is DIFFICULT and TIME-CONSUMING.
What are the Ethical Concerns regarding Netnography?
Access to data does not mean it is available for research purposes.
Considerations:
- OBTAIN INFORMED CONSENT
- DISTINGUISH PUBLIC AND PRIVATE INFO
- Treat METADATA with caution.
(Kozinets: researcher should disclose his presence, ensure confidentiality to informants, incorporate feedback, and obtain permission from members to use postings that are to be quoted).
What are the key takeaways of the seminar reading on interviews and focus groups?
Stokes and Bergin (2006)
- The use of Focus Groups for qualitative market research is INCREASING.
- Focus Groups were found to be subject to CONSENSUS, and unable to match the DEPTH AND DETAIL generated by individual interviews.
- Individual interviews offered LESS BREADTH OF DATA and CONTEXTUAL INFO.
=> Individual interviews have SUPERIOR ABILITY to inform marketing strategy as they uncover important underlying issues.
What are the main takeaways of self-governance in Wikipedia?
- Obtained description of how various forces produce and regulate social STRUCTURES on the site
- First respondent were STRATEGICALLY SELECTED to provide insights about specific issues. They were long-standing, central members of the Wikipedia community
- Based on the issues and themes which surfaced from the initial interviews, further interviewees were recruited
- Chose interviewees because “Understanding a social space involves gaining access to the experiences and interpretations of people who live in that world”
What are the Advantages of Ethnography?
+ Most IN-DEPTH and INTENSIVE research method possible
(Deep understanding of the people, the organisation and the broader context)
+Provides vital info to challenge our assumptions
What are the Disadvantages of Ethnography?
- Both the fieldwork and the analysis are TIME-CONSUMING
- LACKS BREADTH: studies one organisation or culture. However, possible to generalise to theory.
- Due to the AMOUNT OF DATA, writing up for a peer-reviewed journal can be difficult.
(Preferred format: book)
What are the Quality Criteria of an Ethnography? (How is the quality of a Netnography assessed?)
- CONTRIBUTION to the FIELD
- RICHNESS of the INSIGHTS
- QUANTITY of DATA: has significant amount of data been collected?
- INFO ABOUT THE RESEARCH METHOD: is there sufficient information about the research method?
What are the Access and Ethics concerns regarding the use of Ethnography?
The setting can be Closed or Open
- For CLOSED SETTINGS, gaining access can be difficult. It can be eased by acquaintances, negotiating with gatekeepers
- For OPEN SETTINGS, there are also gatekeepers and one needs to find sponsors to gain access
Adopting a COVERT role eases access, however it it
- Creates ETHICAL QUESTIONS about informed consent
- RESTRAINTS THE METHODS USED and harder to take fields notes
Seminar reading: “Ethnography then and now”
- Van Maanen, 2006
FOCUS
- the evolution of ethnographic research in the last 20 years
FINDINGS
- GREAT VARIETY: due to the spread of culture as something constructed by all self-identifying groups
- MULTI-SITE ETHNOS: same group of people in different settings, because of globalisation, enhanced communication… (e.g. study of integration and separation of home and work)
- GREATER ROLE FOR SUBJECTS: In some cases, the subject becomes the co-author of the research (e.g. voice giving strategy in some ethos, where the respondents seem to take over the text)
- A MESSIER WORK: given the problematic nature of identity in the contemporary world, it has become harder to ‘capture’ a culture or spirit
Compare Interviews and Participant Observation
Advantages of Interviews
- Understanding issues that cannot be observed
- Reconstruction of events
- Less intrusive in people’s life
- Ethical considerations
- Longitudinal research (possibility to ask temporal questions)
- Less Time consuming
- Access to a wider variety of people and situations
- Specific focus
Advantages of Participant Observation
- Seeing through others’ eyes
- Higher sensitivity to context
- Learning the native language
- Deeper understanding of how a social process evolves
- Understanding the taken-for-granted
- Encountering the unexpected
Give an example of a digital method used in support of a traditional ethnography.
- Researching the Online Sex Work Community (les puputes).
ARGUMENT
1- The Internet provides opportunities to understand SECRETIVE, ILLICIT social activities and ACCESS groups who are hard to locate and engage.
2- Recruiting from the web and creating online and offline relationships pose ETHICAL and METHODOLOGICAL CHALLENGES.
3- The Internet might be PARTICULARLY USEFUL to answer CERTAIN Research Questions.
4- Digital Methods are LIMITED when studying the interactions of a community online.
EXAMPLE USED
- Ethnography of the social organisation of the sex industry in Britain.
- Therefore, understanding the impact of Computer-Mediated Communications (CMC) on this organisation was an important aspect of the Research (3)
=> Using CMC in their work enable sex workers to be safer (1)
=> They use it to further create a professional identity, more than in real-life (1)
DISCUSSION
- Email interviews were not as rich and detailed as face-to-face interviews (less trust and mutual respect) (4)
- The ethnographer did not reveal his presence on message boards, in order not to alter behaviour or provoke hostility (2)
When and why use interviews?
- When interest in the MEANINGS that people assign to constructs and concepts.
- As a PRIMARY SOURCE of INFO, it adds RICHNESS and CREDIBILITY to the research.
