Data Analysis and Interpretation Flashcards
What is Qualitative Analysis?
- Takes TEXTUAL (or other) DATA and transforms it into FINDINGS.
- Makes sense of MEANINGS:
- Describe a phenomenon by considering themes/patterns
- Explain relations between themes/patterns
- Develop a theory of the phenomenon under study
What are the principles of Qualitative Analysis?
- DIRECTED and FOCUSED: Provides and answer to the Research Question.
- SYSTEMATIC: Analytic strategy with steps to be followed.
- THOROUGH and HONEST: The sampling is well justified, and there is no biased selection of data.
- TRANSPARENT: Provides a clear account of assumptions, procedures, and steps from the raw data to the analysis to the presentation of findings.
- INTERPRETIVE: Goes beyond describing to provide a synthesising interpretation of the data.
- REFLEXIVE: Considers researcher effects.
What is Content Analysis?
An ANALYSIS APPROACH for the OBJECTIVE, SYSTEMATIC, QUANTITATIVE, DESCRIPTION of written or visual sources.
What are the Characteristics of Content Analysis?
- It can be used with ANY sort of TEXTUAL DATA.
- It is useful when the MEANING of the text is RELATIVELY STRAIGHTFORWARD and obvious.
- It is a HYBRID technique: a quantitative method of analysing qualitative data. Frequency, presence of words, patterns are studied, and statistical techniques can be applied.
What are the steps of Content Analysis?
1- SELECT and SAMPLE RELEVANT MATERIAL based on the Research Question.
2- Define the UNIT of ANALYSIS: Significant actors, words, sentences, themes, dispositions,
images…
3- Build a CODING FRAME or coding schedule.
4- PILOT and REVISE the coding frame and define coding rules.
5. TEST the RELIABILITY of the codes.
6. CODE all materials and establish the
overall reliability of the process.
7. Set up a DATA FILE for the purpose of statistical analysis.
8. Write a CODEBOOK.
What is Coding (Definition)?
- A Coding Frame is a SYSTEMATIC WAY of COMPARING.
- It is A SET of CODES (questions) with which the coder analyses the material.
- The theories and Research Question inform the selection of MATERIAL and the definition of different CATEGORIES.
- It is an ITERATIVE PROCESS.
- It can be CONCEPT-DRIVEN or DATA-DRIVEN.
Describe the Coding Process.
- Each CODE has a FINITE number of CODE VALUES.
- Codes values must be MECE.
- The CODING MANUAL provides coders with complete LISTINGS of all codes, code values, and guidance about how to INTERPRET the values.
How is the quality of Content Analysis assessed?
• COHERENCE of the coding frame.
• TRANSPARENCY.
• RELIABILITY: Agreement among interpreters:
– INTER-CODER Reliability: consistency between coders;
– INTRA-CODER Reliability: consistency over time by the same coder.
• VALIDITY: A result correctly represents the text or its context.
What are the advantages of Content Analysis?
• FREQUENCY can allow to discern IMPORTANCE (e.g. of
values).
• Enables LONGITUDINAL analysis (many respondents).
• TRANSPARENT and REPLICABLE; the INTERSUBJECTIVITY is addressed by AGREEMENT on the Coding Manual.
• It can deal with LARGE AMOUNT of DATA (specially if using a Qualitative Data Analysis [QDA] software).
What are the Disadvantages of Content Analysis?
- The QUALITY depends on the SELECTION of MATERIAL.
- REPLICABILITY is not 100% possible.
- Focus on EXPLICIT/MANIFEST MEANINGS.
- CONTEXTUAL ASPECTS MIGHT GET LOST, and this might affect a correct interpretation.
- Difficult to answer ‘WHY’ QUESTIONS.
- DANGER of FOCUSING on what is EASILY MEASURABLE (but not necessarily the most relevant).
What is Grounded Theory?
- It aims at BUILDING THEORIES from categories that are grounded in the data.
- Data Collection, Analysis, and Theory Building are NOT SEPARATED.
- Uses MEMOS: own commentaries reflecting on codes, categories and concepts.
• CODES EMERGE from data:
1- OPEN CODING: summarising the text by the use of a succinct code (using ‘what’, ‘who’, ‘how’, ‘when’, ‘when’ questions). The comparison of codes lead the building of CATEGORIES.
2- AXIAL/SELECTING CODING: interpret the categories by the help of CONCEPTUAL CONSTRUCTS.
3- THEORETICAL CODING: formulation of a THEORY, by specifying causal and/or correlational LINKS BETWEEN the INTERPRETIVE CONSTRUCTS.
What are the advantages of Grounded Theory?
- It gets researchers to ANALYSE data EARLY.
- It provides a method for SYSTEMATIC, DETAILED analysis of the data.
- It encourages CONSTANT INTERPLAY between Data Collection and Analysis.
- It is especially useful for describing REPEATED PROCESSES, e.g. the communication between doctors and patients.
- It gives researchers AMPLE EVIDENCE to back up their claim.
What are the disadvantages of Grounded Theory?
- It can be DIFFICULT to SEE the BIGGER PICTURE. This results in LOWER LEVEL THEORIES.
- Many people have a LIMITED USE of grounded theory: they select higher level theories to explain their findings, and do not generate theories that are well grounded in the data.
Give an example of Content Analysis.
CONTEXT & PURPOSE
• Semi-structured interviews with former members of Arthur Andersen.
• To improve our understanding of the construction of controllability boundaries surrounding the financial audit function.
METHODOLOGY
• Members were asked to reflect on the collapse of their firm.
• Transcripts were read, and the parts discussing control and regulation were coded. The coded sections were copied into and interviewee-based themed matrix, showing the data in a compressed and ordered form.
FINDINGS
• Key commonalities were found: almost all informants believed that financial auditing is controllable, through the deployment of organisational or regulatory controls.
Discuss the Content Analysis of Secondary Data.
READING
• Harris, 2001; Content Analysis of Secondary Data: A Study of Courage in Managerial Decision Making
PURPOSE
• See whether the application of Content Analysis to Secondary Data can help solve the problem of respondent biases (events described in transcripts and surveys are remote in time and complex; this reduces the reliability of primary data).
• In this particular case, research about ethics.
METHOD
• A model of courage had been developed based on the relevant literature from philosophy, psychology and management - 7 elements.
• Content Analysis was used to examine the extentn to which executives’ courage was observed in publications of 4 international daily newspapers.
• This method was chosen for its descriptive ability and the precision it allows.
• Codes were established based on the 7 theoretical elements.
FINDINGS
• Content analysis can be used to analyse secondary sources of data.
• Advantages in using both secondary sources and content analysis in applied ethics research:
- Reduction in distortions due to self-reporting
- Access to information about past events
- Cost
- Ability to assess and demonstrate the reliability of data collection
- Opportunity to validate results obtained with other research methods
