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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Define control

A

The extent to which variables are held constant/regulated

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2
Q

Define cause and effect

A

The ability to show that one variable has an effect on another variable

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3
Q

Define demand characteristics

A

Participants behave or respond in a manner in which they think is expected of them

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4
Q

Define ecological validity

A

The extent to which behaviour reflects real life

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5
Q

Define ethics

A

A set of guidelines psychologists should follow

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6
Q

Define observer bias

A

See what you expect to see

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7
Q

Define social desirability

A

Respond or behave in a manner in which will be seen favourable by others

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8
Q

Define independent variable

A

The variable being manipulated

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9
Q

Define dependant variable

A

The variable being measured

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10
Q

Define operationalise

A

Testable/measurable

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11
Q

Define extraneous variable

A

Any variable other than the IV that might potentially affect the DV

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12
Q

Define confounding variable

A

A variable that causes a change in the DV but which was not the IV of the study

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13
Q

Define participant variables

A

Variables which are to do with the participants including age, gender, social class, ethnicity, gender, personality etc.

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14
Q

Define situational variables

A

Variables to do with the situation which might interfere with and affect the behaviour of participants in an experiment

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15
Q

Define screw you effect

A

A participant deliberately behave in a way that spoils the experiment

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16
Q

Define single blind method

A

This is where participants are not aware of the research aims or conditions they are placed in

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17
Q

Define investigator effects

A

Anything that the investigator does which has an effect on a participants performance

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18
Q

Define double blind method

A

A research design in which neither the participant nor the experimenter is aware of the condition that an individual participant is receiving

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19
Q

Define counterbalancing

A

Ensures that each conditions is tested 1st or 2nd in equal amounts

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20
Q

Define random allocation

A

Ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any experimental condition

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21
Q

Define randomisation

A

When material is presented to participants in random order (changing the order in which trials are presented)

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22
Q

Define standardised procedures

A

Keeping everything the same for all participants

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23
Q

What are the 5 main methods of investigation ?

A
  • Self report
  • Content analysis
  • Correlation
  • Observation
  • Experiment
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24
Q

What are the experimental methods ?

A
  • Laboratory experiment
  • Field experiment
  • Natural/Quasi experiment
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25
Q

What are the non-experimental methods ?

A
  • Observational techniques
  • Self report
  • Case study
  • Correlational analysis
  • Content analysis
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26
Q

What is a lab experiment ?

A

Where psychologists try to control the situation as much as possible in order to test behaviour

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27
Q

What is a field experiment ?

A

Where psychologists investigate behaviour in more lifelike situations and may not be able to control things quite so much as in a lab

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28
Q

What is a natural/quasi experiment

A

Where the independent variable is not manipulated by the experimenter , but naturally occurs

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29
Q

What is observer techniques ?

A

Where you watch people and record their behaviour and information about them

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30
Q

What is a self report ?

A

This is where people tell you about themselves, through an interview or by filling in some sort of questionnaire

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31
Q

What is a case study ?

A

Where one person or a small group of people are studied very intensely and lots of information is gathered about them

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32
Q

What is correlational analysis ?

A

Where two pieces of information are collected than analysed to see if there is a relationship between them

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33
Q

What is content analysis ?

A

A method used to analyse qualitative data. It is a technique that allows a researcher to take qualitative data and to transform it into quantitative data

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34
Q

What are the 4 main parts of the codes of ethics and conduct ?

A
  • Respect
  • Competence
  • Responsibility
  • Integrity
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35
Q

What are the 3 sections within respect in terms of codes of ethics and conduct ?

A
  • Informed consent
  • Right to withdraw
  • Confidentiality
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36
Q

What are the 2 sections within responsibility in terms of codes of ethics and conduct ?

A
  • Protection of participants

- Debrief

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37
Q

What is the section within integrity in terms of codes of ethics and conduct ?

A

Deception

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38
Q

Define respect in terms of codes of ethics and conduct

A

Psychologists should value the dignity and worth of all persons, with sensitivity to the dynamics of perceived authority or influence over clients, and should have particular regard to people’s rights including those of privacy and self-determination

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39
Q

Define competence in terms of codes of ethics and conduct

A

Psychologists should value the continuing development and maintenance of high standards of competence in their professional work, and the importance of preserving their ability to function optimally within the recognised limits of their knowledge, skill, training, education, and experience

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40
Q

Define responsibility in terms of codes of ethics and conduct

A

Psychologists should value their responsibilities to clients, to the general public, and to the profession and science of psychology, including the avoidance of harm and the prevention or misuse or abuse of their contributions to society

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41
Q

Define integrity in terms of codes of ethics and conduct

A

Psychologists value honesty, accuracy, clarity, and fairness in their interactions with all persons, and seek to promote integrity in all facets of their scientific and professional endeavours

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42
Q

Give key elements of a consent form

A
  • Signature/date
  • Debrief at the end
  • Right to ask questions
  • Right to withdraw
  • Confidential/anonymous
  • Participation voluntary
  • Aims of the research
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43
Q

What are the 3 alternative types of consent ?

A
  • Retrospective consent
  • Presumptive consent
  • Prior general consent
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44
Q

Describe retrospective consent

A

This involves asking participants for consent after they have participated in a study. However, they may not consent and yet have already taken part

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45
Q

Describe presumptive consent

A

This is gained from people of a similar background to participants in a study. If they state that they would have been willing to participate, then it is deemed that the actual participants would too

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46
Q

Describe prior general consent

A

This involves participants agreeing to be deceived without knowing how they will be deceived. As participants know they will be deceived, this can affect their behaviour

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47
Q

Give key elements of a debrief

A
  • References to further reading
  • Confidential/anonymous
  • True aims of research and conditions
  • Thank you
  • Contacts to ask questions
  • Expectations from the study
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48
Q

Give two advantages of a lab experiment

A
  • High control

- Cause and effect

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49
Q

Give two disadvantages of a lab experiment

A
  • Demand characteristics

- Low ecological validity

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50
Q

Give two advantages of a field experiment

A
  • High ecological validity

- Reduced demand characteristics

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51
Q

Give two disadvantages of a field experiment

A
  • Reduced control over variables

- Reduced cause and effect

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52
Q

Give two advantages of natural/quasi experiment

A
  • High ecological validity

- Allows researchers to investigate variables that could not practically or ethically be manipulated

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53
Q

Give two disadvantages of natural/quasi experiment

A
  • Reduced control

- Can’t randomly assign participants to groups (participant variables)

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54
Q

Give an advantage of observation

A

-High ecological validity

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55
Q

Give two disadvantages of observation

A
  • Low control

- Observer bias

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56
Q

Give two advantage of survey/questionnaire

A
  • Only way to measure thoughts, feelings, attitudes and beliefs
  • Quick, cheap and easy
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57
Q

Give three disadvantages of survey/questionnaire

A
  • Lying
  • Demand characteristics
  • Social desirability
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58
Q

Give two advantages of correlation

A
  • Used when impractical to use an experiment

- Can be plotted visually in a scatter graph to see relationship

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59
Q

Give two disadvantages of correlation

A
  • No cause and effect

- Does not allow for complex relationships

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60
Q

Give two advantages of case study

A
  • Lots of rich detailed data

- High in ecological validity

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61
Q

Give two disadvantages of case study

A
  • Not representative of the target population. Therefore, cannot generalise our results and conclusions
  • Researcher bias
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62
Q

What is each person in the study called ?

A

Participant

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63
Q

What is a group of participants called ?

A

A sample

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64
Q

Describe random sampling

A

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of appearing in the sample.
For example, picking names out of a hat or using a computer program to randomly generate names from a list of everyone in the target population

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65
Q

Describe opportunity sampling

A

These are people who are available and willing to take part in your research

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66
Q

Describe volunteer sampling

A

These are people who are willing to participate, certain personality types are more likely to volunteer than others

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67
Q

Describe systematic sampling

A

There is an order/system to choosing the participants in the sample

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68
Q

Describe stratified sampling

A

A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population. Participants are then selected randomly from subgroups

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69
Q

Give an advantage of random sampling

A

There is an equal chance of being part of the study

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70
Q

Give a disadvantage of random sampling

A

Difficult to achieve i.e. time, effort and money

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71
Q

Give an advantage of opportunity sampling

A

People who are able and willing to participate - good ethics

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72
Q

Give a disadvantage of opportunity sampling

A

Selection bias, researcher is likely to pick people who make eye contact, smile etc.

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73
Q

Give an advantage of systematic sampling

A

Most representative of the target population

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74
Q

Give two disadvantages of systematic sampling

A
  • High risk of data manipulation exists

- Requires a close approximation of a population

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75
Q

Give an advantage of stratified sampling

A

Participants are randomly chosen

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76
Q

Why is an experiment the most scientific method of investigating behaviour?

A

It is the most systematic and objective way to observe, record and describe events and allows for control over variables

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77
Q

Give a disadvantage of stratified sampling

A

When researchers can’t classify every member of the population into a subgroup

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78
Q

What are the key features of a lab experiment ?

A
  • Conducted in an artificial environment
  • Allows for a high degree of control over variables
  • Allows the experimenter to manipulate an IV and measure the effect on the DV (cause and effect)
  • Tend to be reliable (consistency of measurement)
  • Allow for replication (standardised procedure/instructions)
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79
Q

What are the key features of a field experiment ?

A
  • Conducted in a more natural environment
  • Allows a degree of control (reduced through natural environment)
  • Allows the experimenter to manipulate an IV and measure the effect on the DV
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80
Q

What are the key features of a natural/quasi experiment ?

A
  • The IV’s occur naturally
  • The experimenter has no control over the IV
  • The experimenter measures the DV
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81
Q

What are the 3 experimental design methods ?

A
  • Independent measures
  • Repeated measures
  • Matched pairs
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82
Q

Outline a independent measures study

A

An independent measures design involves using different participants in each condition of the experiment

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83
Q

Outline a repeated measures study

A

A repeated measures design involves using the same participant in each condition of the experiment

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84
Q

Outline a matched pairs design

A

Matched pairs design involves using different but similar participants in each condition of the experiment

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85
Q

Give an advantage of repeated measures

A

Control/reduce participant variables to some extent

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86
Q

Give disadvantages of repeated measures

A
  • Situational variables
  • Extraneous variables
  • Demand characteristics
  • Lying/Cheating because they’ve already done the test once
  • Order effects
  • Time consuming
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87
Q

Give advantages of independent measures

A
  • Control situational variables to some extent if it’s done at the same time
  • Reduction in order effects
  • Less time consuming
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88
Q

Give a disadvantage of independent measures

A

-Different types of people (participant variables)

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89
Q

Give advantages of matched pairs

A
  • Control participant variables and situational variables more
  • No order effects
  • Similar people put together makes the experiment more fair
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90
Q

Give disadvantages of matched pairs

A
  • Still other participant factors/variables to take into consideration
  • Time consuming
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91
Q

What is a directional (one tailed) hypothesis ?

A

A hypothesis which predicts the direction of a difference between two groups

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92
Q

What is a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis ?

A

A hypothesis which only predicts that there will be a significant difference between groups

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93
Q

Give an example of a directional hypothesis

A

There will be a significant difference in the number of words recalled (out of 20) in a 1-minute recall test by participants who drink four pints of beer in 1 hour compared to participants who drink four pints of cider in 1-hour period

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94
Q

Give an example of a non-directional hypothesis

A

Participants who have background noise will have a significant difference in reaction time (seconds) than participants completing the same task who do not have background noise

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95
Q

What is a null hypothesis ?

A

The null hypothesis predicts that there will not be any difference between groups.

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96
Q

Give an example of a null hypothesis

A

There will be no significant difference in the number of words recalled (out of 20) in a 1-minute recall test between participants who drink 4 pints of beer in a 1 hour period and participants who drink 4 pints of water in a 1-hour period.

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97
Q

What is the type 1 error ?

A

Researcher accepts the alternate hypothesis, when they should have accepted the null hypothesis (false positive)

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98
Q

What is the type 2 error ?

A

Researcher accepts the null hypothesis, when they should have accepted the alternate hypothesis

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99
Q

Give strengths of case studies?

A
  • Rich detailed descriptive data - increased validity
  • Tend to be high ecological validity
  • Insight into unique/unusual behaviour (HM study)
100
Q

Give weaknesses of case studies?

A
  • Not representative - limited generalisability
  • lack population validity
  • Difficult/impossible to replicate/ unscientific
  • Researcher bias/subjective interpretation
101
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

Refers to the extent to which different observers are able to observe and rate (or code) the same behaviour in the same way. A good study/observation should have at least 80% agreement between observers.

102
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

Usually takes place in some form of controlled environment which allows control over variables

103
Q

Give weaknesses of a controlled observation

A
  • Demand characteristics
  • Lower ecological validity
  • Can’t infer cause and effect
105
Q

Give 2 strengths of a naturalistic observation?

A
  • Being able to observe the flow of behaviour in its own setting - greater ecological validity
  • Generate new ideas
106
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

Takes place in the participant’s natural environment e.g. children in creche. In most cases participants in a naturalistic observation are not aware that they are being observed; this means that they behave more naturally and makes the research more ecological valid

107
Q

Give weaknesses of a naturalistic observation

A
  • Demand characteristics
  • Social desirability
  • No control over extraneous variables
108
Q

Give strengths of a controlled observation

A
  • Easily replicated by other researchers
  • Data is easier and quicker to analyse as it is quantitative
  • Increase reliability
  • Extraneous
108
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

Structured observation involves the use of tables of pre-determined categories of behaviour, also known as a coding system or behaviour checklist

109
Q

What is event sampling?

A

When the observer(s) record specific occurrences of predetermined behaviours every time they occur continuously throughout the whole duration of the observation period

110
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Observations may be made at regular time intervals and coded (e.g. every 30 seconds for 5 minutes)

111
Q

Give key features of case studies

A
  • An in depth investigation of one person or a small group of people
  • Investigate naturally occurring events so they allow psychologists to look a things that could not normally be investigated
  • Can be longitudinal or retrospective
  • The researcher gather a range of information
  • The researcher uses a number of methods to gather the information
112
Q

Give 3 strengths of quantitative data

A
  • Can be put onto a graph
  • Precise
  • Easily analysed
113
Q

Give a strength of qualitative data

A

Give us a much better idea of what people really think

114
Q

Give two weaknesses of qualitative data

A
  • Difficult to demonstrate, maintain and asses the rigidity of the data
  • Takes a long time to analyse
115
Q

Define primary data

A

Any data collected by a researcher directly working with participants conducting experiments or observations

116
Q

Give a strength of primary data

A

Researcher has greater control over the data. The data collection can be designed so it fits the aims and hypothesis of the study

117
Q

Give a weakness of primary data

A

Lengthy and expensive process - Designing a study, recruiting participants, conducting and analysing results

118
Q

Define secondary data

A

Collected when researcher want to use data that already exists often this involves taking the findings from other people’s research and re-analysing it in a different way

119
Q

Define a meta-analysis

A

Where researchers combine the findings from multiple studies to draw an overall conclusion

120
Q

Give a strength of secondary data

A

Data is readily available and inexpensive to obtain (less time consuming)

121
Q

Give a weakness of secondary data

A

Data may not exactly fit the needs of your study and has undergone some form of interpretation and thus be biased

122
Q

Describe raw data

A

The data we collect in any study is referred to as raw data

123
Q

Describe measure of central tendency

A

A measure of central tendency reduces a large amount of data (this is called the raw data) to a single value which is representative of that set of data

124
Q

What is the mode ?

A

The most commonly occurring or frequent score in a set of scores

125
Q

What is the median ?

A

The middle value in a set of values (to find this you need to put all scores in order from lowest to highest)

126
Q

How do you calculate the mean ?

A

Add up all the scores and divide by the number of scores

127
Q

Give strengths of using mode as the central tendency

A
  • It shows the most common or important score

- It is always a result from the actual data set, so can be a useful or realistic statistic

128
Q

Give weaknesses of using mode as the central tendency

A
  • It is not very useful if there are several modal values or if the modal value is only significantly more common than other scores
  • It has little further uses in the data analysis
129
Q

Give strengths of using median as the central tendency

A
  • It is relatively quick and easy to calculate

- It is not affected by extremely high or low scores, so more representative

130
Q

Give weaknesses of using median as the central tendency

A
  • Not all scores are used to work out the median

- It has little further use in the data analysis

131
Q

Give strengths of using mean as the central tendency

A
  • Uses all the scores in a data set

- Used in further calculations and so handy to work out

132
Q

Give weaknesses of using mean as the central tendency

A
  • Can be skewed by high and low scores. This will make the average un-representative and misleading
  • It can sometimes give an unrealistic value
133
Q

What are the 2 main measures of dispersion ?

A
  • Range

- Standard deviation

134
Q

What is the range ?

A

The highest score minus the lowest score

135
Q

What is standard deviation ?

A

The average amount each score deviates from the mean of that set of scores it is denoted by the symbol S

136
Q

Give a strength of using the range

A

It is fairly easy and quick to work out

137
Q

Give weaknesses of using the range

A
  • It can be distorted by extreme scores

- It does not take into account all scores and fails to show if scores are evenly spread around the mean

138
Q

Give strengths of using standard deviation

A
  • All scores in the set are taken into account, so it’s more accurate than the range
  • It can be used in further analysis
  • In the same units and is a more useful measure of how far on average each score differs from the mean
139
Q

Give a weakness of using standard deviation

A

It is not as quick or easy to calculate as the range

140
Q

Steps to calculate standard deviation

A
  1. Write the values for score in variable 1 in the first column x
  2. Calculate the mean for the set of value x_
  3. Subtract each score from the mean score and write the answer to each in the second column x - x_
  4. Square each answer from the second column and write this in the third column (x-x_)^2
  5. Add together all the scores in column 3
  6. Divide this total by the number of scores - 1
  7. Take the square root of the answer
141
Q

Define reliability

A

Consistency of measurement

142
Q

Define validity

A

Measures what it claims to measure

143
Q

Define inter-observer reliability

A

Refers to the extent to which different observers are able to observe and rate (or code) the same behaviour in the same way

144
Q

Give strengths of a naturalistic observation

A
  • Being able to observe the flow of behaviour in its own setting - greater ecological validity
  • Generate new ideas
145
Q

Give weaknesses of a naturalistic observation

A
  • Demand characteristics
  • Social desirability
  • No control over extraneous variables
146
Q

Give strengths of a controlled observation

A
  • Easily replicated by other researchers
  • Data is easier and quicker to analyse as it is quantitative
  • Increases reliability
  • Extraneous variables
147
Q

Give weaknesses of a controlled observation

A
  • Demand characteristics
  • Lower ecological validity
  • Can’t infer cause and effect
148
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

Structured observation involves the use of tables of pre-determined categories of behaviour,, also known as a coding system or behaviour checklist

149
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

Unstructured observations are when the observer records everything that happens

150
Q

Define time sampling

A

Observations may be made at regular time intervals and coded (e.g. every 30 seconds for 5 minutes)

151
Q

Define event sampling

A

When the observer(s) record specific occurrences of predetermined behaviours every time they occur continuously throughout the whole duration of the observation period

152
Q

Give a strength of event sampling

A

Increased validity - less likely to miss behaviour as it is monitored

153
Q

Give a weakness of event sampling

A

-Difficult to record all behaviours - may miss behaviour - reduced validity and reliability

154
Q

Give strengths of time sampling

A
  • Easier to record data

- Increased chances of obtaining reliable data

155
Q

Give a weakness of time sampling

A

Reduced validity - miss behaviour

156
Q

Give strengths of structured observations

A
  • Reduced demand characteristics
  • Easier to record data
  • Increases reliability of data recording
157
Q

Give weaknesses of structured observations

A
  • Not easily generalised

- Reduced validity

158
Q

Give strengths of unstructured observations

A
  • More in depth results

- Valid - allows you to record all behaviours

159
Q

Give weaknesses of unstructured observations

A

Difficult to analyse

-Difficult to achieve reliability

160
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

A participant observation is when the observer acts as part of the group being watched/observed

161
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A

A non-participant observation is where the observer does not become part of the group being observed

162
Q

Give strengths of participant observations

A
  • Allows the research to gain a depth of knowledge

- Ability to record and monitor behaviour in closer detail

163
Q

Give weaknesses of participant observations

A
  • Time consuming
  • Generates a vast amount of data
  • Researcher variables
164
Q

Give strengths of non-participant observations

A
  • Better reliability because the researcher is less involved

- Researcher is less involved so people may act more naturally

165
Q

Give weaknesses of non-participant observations

A
  • Demand characteristics

- Reduced validity

166
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

Where the participant(s) know they are being observed

167
Q

What is a covert observation

A

Where the participant(s) are unaware that they are being observed

168
Q

Strengths of an overt observation

A
  • Enables the researcher to build some kind of rapport with participants
  • More ethical
169
Q

Weaknesses of an overt observation

A
  • Time consuming
  • Demand characteristics
  • Difficult to repeat
  • Not always representative
170
Q

Give the key features of an observation

A
  1. An observation is the systematic measurement of spontaneously occurring behaviour
  2. An observation can be conducted in a controlled environment (e.g. lab) or in a naturalistic environment (e.g. playground)
  3. An observation can be structured (use pre-determined checklist) or unstructured (no pre-determined checklist)
  4. If structured, the researcher decides which behaviours they want to record and will produce a coding system with behavioural categories of behaviours
171
Q

How can validity be improved in an observation?

A
  1. Reduce demand characteristics by observing covertly
  2. Carry out a pilot study to determine/check behaviour categories
  3. Check for inter-rater reliability by getting two or more observers to watch the same events and check their tallies against each others
172
Q

How can reliability be improved in an observation

A
  1. pre observation training

2. Practice

173
Q

What are open questions?

A

Open questions are questions in which participants respond by writing as much as they want in response to a statement or question - this produces qualitative data (rich detailed descriptive data)

174
Q

What are closed questions?

A

Closed questions are questions in which participants have a forced/fixed choice of an answer - responses are predetermined by the researcher

175
Q

Give an advantage of open questions

A

People are free to fully express an answer- you will get detailed information

176
Q

Give a disadvantage of open questions

A

The information people give may be difficult to analyse and summarise

177
Q

Give advantages of closed questions

A
  • Allows quantitative data to be collected
  • Easy to analyse
  • Easy to fill in
178
Q

Give a disadvantage of closed questions

A

-No space for detailed information or reasoning

179
Q

What is a questionnaire?

A

A set of written questions that can be answered easily

180
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Participants should be aware of the nature of any questionnaire and any sensitive questions in order that they are able to give informed consent

181
Q

What does right to withdraw mean?

A

We must make it clear to all participants that they are free to withdraw during the study, or to miss out any questions they do not feel comfortable with, or to withdraw their data from a study after we have collected it

182
Q

What does confidentiality involve?

A

We must maintain confidentiality of responses given and never reveal who said what in a questionnaire

183
Q

What does anonymity mean?

A

Different to confidentiality, this is where even the researchers do not know the identity of the participants and can be achieved by using postal questionnaires

184
Q

What does protection mean in terms of ethics?

A

Participants should not be embarrassed or made to feel uncomfortable in answering any questions. If we want to conduct research on a sensitive issue or ask about behaviour that could cause embarrassment, we have to take extra care over issues such as informed consent and confidentiality.

185
Q

Give strengths of a questionnaire

A
  • Allows us to measure attitudes, beliefs and opinions
  • Collect a large amount of data relatively quickly
  • Ease of analysis
  • Standardisation/replication possible
  • Quantitative data
186
Q

Give weaknesses of a questionnaire

A
  • Social desirability
  • Untruthfulness
  • Low response rate
  • Lacks flexibility
  • Interpretation
187
Q

Give key features of a questionnaire

A
  1. A questionnaire is a set of pre-determined questions
  2. Questionnaires are designed to collect participants’ attitudes, beliefs and opinions on a given topic
  3. Questionnaires should include a range of open and closed questions
188
Q

What are interviews?

A

Interviews are face to face conversations (sometimes interviews are conducted over the phone)

189
Q

What are structured interviews?

A

Follow a fixed set of questions that are the same for all participants (predetermined questions)

190
Q

Give strengths of a structured interview

A
  • Easy to replicate (check reliability)

- Quick and easy to conduct

191
Q

Give a weakness of a structured interview

A

-Lack flexibility (can’t adapt questioning)

192
Q

What is a semi-structured interview?

A

Uses a fixed set of questions however allows interviewers to introduce new questions

193
Q

Give strengths of a semi-structured interview

A
  • Encourages two-way communication
  • Provides qualitative data
  • Open ended responses - more in depth information
194
Q

Give weaknesses of a semi-structured interview

A
  • Time consuming
  • Possible to write leading questions
  • You need to interview enough people to draw conclusions and make comparisons
195
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A

May have a set of discussion topics, but are less constrained about how the conversation goes (similar to a semi-structured)

196
Q

Give strengths of an unstructured interview?

A
  • Flexibility (adapt questioning)

- Generates lots of rich detailed data (increased validity)

197
Q

Give a weakness of an unstructured interview

A

-Time consuming

198
Q

Give strengths of interviews as a whole

A
  • You can get both qualitative and quantitative data
  • Can measure attitudes, beliefs, etc that cannot otherwise be measured
  • Easy to replicate
199
Q

Give weaknesses of interviews as a whole

A
  • Social desirability
  • Demand characteristics
  • Lying
  • Low response rate
200
Q

Give the key features of an interview

A
  1. Interviews are useful for gathering more detailed information and enabling a more natural and flexible approach to questioning. The interviewer usually has certain topics that they want to explore but they still involve participants giving information about their views, opinions or attitudes on a specific topic
  2. Interviews can be structured, unstructured or semi structured
  3. An interviewer can ask closed and/or open questions to gather different types of data
201
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small scale version (dry run) of the real research often carried out before the full scale research project begins

202
Q

What is the purpose of a pilot study?

A

They are used to check the research works as it is intended to

203
Q

What does a pilot study test for?

A
  • Are there any demand characteristics?
  • Are the instructions clear?
  • Are the resources adequate (e.g. behaviour checklist)
  • Are there any extraneous variables that could affect the results?
204
Q

Why is an experiment the most scientific method of investigating behaviour?

A

It is the most systematic and objective way to observe, record and describe events and allows for control over variables

205
Q

Why is an experiment the most scientific method of investigating behaviour?

A

It is the most systematic and objective way to observe, record and describe events and allows for control over variables

206
Q

Give strengths of case studies?

A
  • Rich detailed descriptive data - increased validity
  • Tend to be high ecological validity
  • Insight into unique/unusual behaviour (HM study)
207
Q

What is time sampling?

A

Observations may be made at regular time intervals and coded (e.g. every 30 seconds for 5 minutes)

208
Q

What is event sampling?

A

When the observer(s) record specific occurrences of predetermined behaviours every time they occur continuously throughout the whole duration of the observation period

209
Q

What is content analysis?

A

It is where a researcher quite literally analyses the content of something, usually in order to transform complex qualitative data into quantitative data so that conclusions about patterns may be drawn more easily

210
Q

Give advantages of content analysis

A
  • It is a reliable way to analyse qualitative data as the coding units are not open to interpretation and so are applied in the same way over time and with different researchers (in essence to check reliability)
  • It is an easy technique to use and is not too time consuming (easy to complete)
  • Tend to have high ecological validity because they are based on observations of what people actually do
211
Q

Give disadvantages of content analysis

A
  • Causality cannot be established as it merely describes the data
  • As it only describes the data it cannot extract any deeper meaning or exploitation for the data patterns arising
  • Content analyses are only as generalisable as the artefacts being studied. If the artefacts are limited to a particular culture or group, then the findings won’t be generalisable to wider society
212
Q

Define internal validity

A

Is related to what actually happens in the study. In terms of an experiment it refers to whether the IV really has had an effect on the DV or whether the DV caused by some other CV

213
Q

Define external validity

A

Refers to whether findings of a study really can be generalised beyond the present study

214
Q

What is face validity?

A

Refers to the extent to which a measure appears on the surface to measure what it is supposed to measure

215
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

Refers to the extent to which test results conform with those on some other valid measure, taken at the same time. In essence, whether a test or piece of research gives the same results as another tests or study, which claims to measure the same behaviour

216
Q

What is temporal validity?

A

If the study passes the test of time i.e. it is replicated at a later date

217
Q

What is population validity?

A

Refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalised to other populations of people

218
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

Refers to the extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the present situation in to real life

219
Q

What are the 7 ways to improve validity?

A
  1. Improving concurrent validity
  2. Single blind technique
  3. Double blind technique
  4. Eye ball test by ‘experts’
  5. Large sample and careful sampling: improving population validity
  6. Improving temporal validity
  7. Improving ecological validity
220
Q

What are the two types of reliability?

A
  1. Internal reliability

2. External reliability

221
Q

What is internal reliability?

A

How consistently a method measures within itself

222
Q

What is external validity?

A

How consistently a method measure over time or between people

223
Q

Describe nominal data

A

It’s simply a frequency count for distinct categories where something can only belong to one category e.g. number of people who pass or fail a driving test; number of smokers and non smokers. This is the most basic type of data

224
Q

Describe ordinal data

A

This is where numbers can be placed in ascending or descending rank order e.g. on a rating scale where 1 = unattractive, 10 = highly attractive or coming 1st, 2nd, 3rd on a test. However, we do not know the true intervals between each position or rank

225
Q

Describe interval/ratio data

A

Measurements are taken from a scale where each unit is the same size and the gap between each unit is fixed and equal e.g. The difference between a temperature of 100 degrees and 90 degrees is the same difference as between 90 degrees and 80. This is the most sophisticated type of data

226
Q

Give a strength of nominal data

A

Useful to describe behaviours

227
Q

Give two weaknesses of nominal data

A
  • Quite simplistic

- Limited statistical value

228
Q

Give a strength of ordinal data

A
  • Useful when investigating opinions
229
Q

Give two weaknesses of ordinal data

A
  • Very subjective

- Scales require interpretation

230
Q

Give a strength of interval/ratio data

A

Strongest statistical tests can be conducted

231
Q

Give a weakness of interval/rational data

A

Often lacks ecological validity

232
Q

What are the two types of statistical analysis?

A
  1. Descriptive statistics

2. Inferential statistics

233
Q

What is descriptive statistics?

A

Estimations, ratios, percentages, frequency diagrams, simple calculations such as mean median and mode, graphs and charts and diagrams that allow us to see broad patterns or anomalies in a set of data

234
Q

What is inferential statistics?

A

Statistical tests conducted on data using a set formula and then comparing the result we have calculated to data in statistical tables that can tell us whether any patterns we have found are statistically significant

235
Q

How can you control design issues?

A
  1. Counterbalancing
  2. Random allocation
  3. Randomisation
  4. Single blind techniques
  5. Double blind techniques
  6. Standardised procedures
236
Q

What are the key features of case studies?

A
  1. In depth investigation of one person or a small group of people
  2. Investigate naturally occurring events
  3. Can be longitudinal or retrospective
  4. Gathers a range of information
  5. Uses a number of methods to gather the information
237
Q

Give a strength of event sampling

A

Increased validity - less likely to miss behaviour as it is monitored

238
Q

Give a weakness of event sampling

A

Difficult to record all behaviour - may miss behaviour

239
Q

Give a strength of time sampling

A

Easier to record data and increased chance of obtaining reliable data

240
Q

Give a weakness of time sampling

A

Reduced validity - miss behaviour

241
Q

Give weaknesses of correlational studies

A
  • does not show cause and effect
  • difficulties quantifying the variables
  • does not allow for complex relationships
242
Q

What are the key features of correlation?

A
  1. Measures the relationship between 2 variables
  2. The relationship can be positive or negative
  3. The relationship can be strong or weak
  4. Can be represented on a scatter gram and analyses using a Spearman’s Rho or Pearson’s R
243
Q

What are the 5 features of science?

A
  1. Objective
  2. Empiricism
  3. Replicability
  4. Falsifiability
  5. Paradigm
244
Q

What is a paradigm?

A

An agreed subject matter and set of procedures

245
Q

What are Kuhn’s 3 stages in relation to the development of science?

A
  1. Pre science
  2. Normal science
  3. Revolutionary science

Psychology (11 decks)

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