Research Methods Flashcards
Define control
The extent to which variables are held constant/regulated
Define cause and effect
The ability to show that one variable has an effect on another variable
Define demand characteristics
Participants behave or respond in a manner in which they think is expected of them
Define ecological validity
The extent to which behaviour reflects real life
Define ethics
A set of guidelines psychologists should follow
Define observer bias
See what you expect to see
Define social desirability
Respond or behave in a manner in which will be seen favourable by others
Define independent variable
The variable being manipulated
Define dependant variable
The variable being measured
Define operationalise
Testable/measurable
Define extraneous variable
Any variable other than the IV that might potentially affect the DV
Define confounding variable
A variable that causes a change in the DV but which was not the IV of the study
Define participant variables
Variables which are to do with the participants including age, gender, social class, ethnicity, gender, personality etc.
Define situational variables
Variables to do with the situation which might interfere with and affect the behaviour of participants in an experiment
Define screw you effect
A participant deliberately behave in a way that spoils the experiment
Define single blind method
This is where participants are not aware of the research aims or conditions they are placed in
Define investigator effects
Anything that the investigator does which has an effect on a participants performance
Define double blind method
A research design in which neither the participant nor the experimenter is aware of the condition that an individual participant is receiving
Define counterbalancing
Ensures that each conditions is tested 1st or 2nd in equal amounts
Define random allocation
Ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any experimental condition
Define randomisation
When material is presented to participants in random order (changing the order in which trials are presented)
Define standardised procedures
Keeping everything the same for all participants
What are the 5 main methods of investigation ?
- Self report
- Content analysis
- Correlation
- Observation
- Experiment
What are the experimental methods ?
- Laboratory experiment
- Field experiment
- Natural/Quasi experiment
What are the non-experimental methods ?
- Observational techniques
- Self report
- Case study
- Correlational analysis
- Content analysis
What is a lab experiment ?
Where psychologists try to control the situation as much as possible in order to test behaviour
What is a field experiment ?
Where psychologists investigate behaviour in more lifelike situations and may not be able to control things quite so much as in a lab
What is a natural/quasi experiment
Where the independent variable is not manipulated by the experimenter , but naturally occurs
What is observer techniques ?
Where you watch people and record their behaviour and information about them
What is a self report ?
This is where people tell you about themselves, through an interview or by filling in some sort of questionnaire
What is a case study ?
Where one person or a small group of people are studied very intensely and lots of information is gathered about them
What is correlational analysis ?
Where two pieces of information are collected than analysed to see if there is a relationship between them
What is content analysis ?
A method used to analyse qualitative data. It is a technique that allows a researcher to take qualitative data and to transform it into quantitative data
What are the 4 main parts of the codes of ethics and conduct ?
- Respect
- Competence
- Responsibility
- Integrity
What are the 3 sections within respect in terms of codes of ethics and conduct ?
- Informed consent
- Right to withdraw
- Confidentiality
What are the 2 sections within responsibility in terms of codes of ethics and conduct ?
- Protection of participants
- Debrief
What is the section within integrity in terms of codes of ethics and conduct ?
Deception
Define respect in terms of codes of ethics and conduct
Psychologists should value the dignity and worth of all persons, with sensitivity to the dynamics of perceived authority or influence over clients, and should have particular regard to people’s rights including those of privacy and self-determination
Define competence in terms of codes of ethics and conduct
Psychologists should value the continuing development and maintenance of high standards of competence in their professional work, and the importance of preserving their ability to function optimally within the recognised limits of their knowledge, skill, training, education, and experience
Define responsibility in terms of codes of ethics and conduct
Psychologists should value their responsibilities to clients, to the general public, and to the profession and science of psychology, including the avoidance of harm and the prevention or misuse or abuse of their contributions to society
Define integrity in terms of codes of ethics and conduct
Psychologists value honesty, accuracy, clarity, and fairness in their interactions with all persons, and seek to promote integrity in all facets of their scientific and professional endeavours
Give key elements of a consent form
- Signature/date
- Debrief at the end
- Right to ask questions
- Right to withdraw
- Confidential/anonymous
- Participation voluntary
- Aims of the research
What are the 3 alternative types of consent ?
- Retrospective consent
- Presumptive consent
- Prior general consent
Describe retrospective consent
This involves asking participants for consent after they have participated in a study. However, they may not consent and yet have already taken part
Describe presumptive consent
This is gained from people of a similar background to participants in a study. If they state that they would have been willing to participate, then it is deemed that the actual participants would too
Describe prior general consent
This involves participants agreeing to be deceived without knowing how they will be deceived. As participants know they will be deceived, this can affect their behaviour
Give key elements of a debrief
- References to further reading
- Confidential/anonymous
- True aims of research and conditions
- Thank you
- Contacts to ask questions
- Expectations from the study
Give two advantages of a lab experiment
- High control
- Cause and effect
Give two disadvantages of a lab experiment
- Demand characteristics
- Low ecological validity
Give two advantages of a field experiment
- High ecological validity
- Reduced demand characteristics
Give two disadvantages of a field experiment
- Reduced control over variables
- Reduced cause and effect
Give two advantages of natural/quasi experiment
- High ecological validity
- Allows researchers to investigate variables that could not practically or ethically be manipulated
Give two disadvantages of natural/quasi experiment
- Reduced control
- Can’t randomly assign participants to groups (participant variables)
Give an advantage of observation
-High ecological validity
Give two disadvantages of observation
- Low control
- Observer bias
Give two advantage of survey/questionnaire
- Only way to measure thoughts, feelings, attitudes and beliefs
- Quick, cheap and easy
Give three disadvantages of survey/questionnaire
- Lying
- Demand characteristics
- Social desirability
Give two advantages of correlation
- Used when impractical to use an experiment
- Can be plotted visually in a scatter graph to see relationship
Give two disadvantages of correlation
- No cause and effect
- Does not allow for complex relationships
Give two advantages of case study
- Lots of rich detailed data
- High in ecological validity
Give two disadvantages of case study
- Not representative of the target population. Therefore, cannot generalise our results and conclusions
- Researcher bias
What is each person in the study called ?
Participant
What is a group of participants called ?
A sample
Describe random sampling
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of appearing in the sample.
For example, picking names out of a hat or using a computer program to randomly generate names from a list of everyone in the target population
Describe opportunity sampling
These are people who are available and willing to take part in your research
Describe volunteer sampling
These are people who are willing to participate, certain personality types are more likely to volunteer than others
Describe systematic sampling
There is an order/system to choosing the participants in the sample
Describe stratified sampling
A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population. Participants are then selected randomly from subgroups
Give an advantage of random sampling
There is an equal chance of being part of the study
Give a disadvantage of random sampling
Difficult to achieve i.e. time, effort and money
Give an advantage of opportunity sampling
People who are able and willing to participate - good ethics
Give a disadvantage of opportunity sampling
Selection bias, researcher is likely to pick people who make eye contact, smile etc.
Give an advantage of systematic sampling
Most representative of the target population
Give two disadvantages of systematic sampling
- High risk of data manipulation exists
- Requires a close approximation of a population
Give an advantage of stratified sampling
Participants are randomly chosen
Why is an experiment the most scientific method of investigating behaviour?
It is the most systematic and objective way to observe, record and describe events and allows for control over variables
Give a disadvantage of stratified sampling
When researchers can’t classify every member of the population into a subgroup
What are the key features of a lab experiment ?
- Conducted in an artificial environment
- Allows for a high degree of control over variables
- Allows the experimenter to manipulate an IV and measure the effect on the DV (cause and effect)
- Tend to be reliable (consistency of measurement)
- Allow for replication (standardised procedure/instructions)
What are the key features of a field experiment ?
- Conducted in a more natural environment
- Allows a degree of control (reduced through natural environment)
- Allows the experimenter to manipulate an IV and measure the effect on the DV
What are the key features of a natural/quasi experiment ?
- The IV’s occur naturally
- The experimenter has no control over the IV
- The experimenter measures the DV
What are the 3 experimental design methods ?
- Independent measures
- Repeated measures
- Matched pairs
Outline a independent measures study
An independent measures design involves using different participants in each condition of the experiment
Outline a repeated measures study
A repeated measures design involves using the same participant in each condition of the experiment
Outline a matched pairs design
Matched pairs design involves using different but similar participants in each condition of the experiment
Give an advantage of repeated measures
Control/reduce participant variables to some extent
Give disadvantages of repeated measures
- Situational variables
- Extraneous variables
- Demand characteristics
- Lying/Cheating because they’ve already done the test once
- Order effects
- Time consuming
Give advantages of independent measures
- Control situational variables to some extent if it’s done at the same time
- Reduction in order effects
- Less time consuming
Give a disadvantage of independent measures
-Different types of people (participant variables)
Give advantages of matched pairs
- Control participant variables and situational variables more
- No order effects
- Similar people put together makes the experiment more fair
Give disadvantages of matched pairs
- Still other participant factors/variables to take into consideration
- Time consuming
What is a directional (one tailed) hypothesis ?
A hypothesis which predicts the direction of a difference between two groups
What is a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis ?
A hypothesis which only predicts that there will be a significant difference between groups
Give an example of a directional hypothesis
There will be a significant difference in the number of words recalled (out of 20) in a 1-minute recall test by participants who drink four pints of beer in 1 hour compared to participants who drink four pints of cider in 1-hour period
Give an example of a non-directional hypothesis
Participants who have background noise will have a significant difference in reaction time (seconds) than participants completing the same task who do not have background noise
What is a null hypothesis ?
The null hypothesis predicts that there will not be any difference between groups.
Give an example of a null hypothesis
There will be no significant difference in the number of words recalled (out of 20) in a 1-minute recall test between participants who drink 4 pints of beer in a 1 hour period and participants who drink 4 pints of water in a 1-hour period.
What is the type 1 error ?
Researcher accepts the alternate hypothesis, when they should have accepted the null hypothesis (false positive)
What is the type 2 error ?
Researcher accepts the null hypothesis, when they should have accepted the alternate hypothesis
Give strengths of case studies?
- Rich detailed descriptive data - increased validity
- Tend to be high ecological validity
- Insight into unique/unusual behaviour (HM study)
Give weaknesses of case studies?
- Not representative - limited generalisability
- lack population validity
- Difficult/impossible to replicate/ unscientific
- Researcher bias/subjective interpretation
What is inter-rater reliability?
Refers to the extent to which different observers are able to observe and rate (or code) the same behaviour in the same way. A good study/observation should have at least 80% agreement between observers.
What is a controlled observation?
Usually takes place in some form of controlled environment which allows control over variables
Give weaknesses of a controlled observation
- Demand characteristics
- Lower ecological validity
- Can’t infer cause and effect
Give 2 strengths of a naturalistic observation?
- Being able to observe the flow of behaviour in its own setting - greater ecological validity
- Generate new ideas
What is a naturalistic observation?
Takes place in the participant’s natural environment e.g. children in creche. In most cases participants in a naturalistic observation are not aware that they are being observed; this means that they behave more naturally and makes the research more ecological valid
Give weaknesses of a naturalistic observation
- Demand characteristics
- Social desirability
- No control over extraneous variables
Give strengths of a controlled observation
- Easily replicated by other researchers
- Data is easier and quicker to analyse as it is quantitative
- Increase reliability
- Extraneous
What is a structured observation?
Structured observation involves the use of tables of pre-determined categories of behaviour, also known as a coding system or behaviour checklist
What is event sampling?
When the observer(s) record specific occurrences of predetermined behaviours every time they occur continuously throughout the whole duration of the observation period
What is time sampling?
Observations may be made at regular time intervals and coded (e.g. every 30 seconds for 5 minutes)
Give key features of case studies
- An in depth investigation of one person or a small group of people
- Investigate naturally occurring events so they allow psychologists to look a things that could not normally be investigated
- Can be longitudinal or retrospective
- The researcher gather a range of information
- The researcher uses a number of methods to gather the information
Give 3 strengths of quantitative data
- Can be put onto a graph
- Precise
- Easily analysed
Give a strength of qualitative data
Give us a much better idea of what people really think
Give two weaknesses of qualitative data
- Difficult to demonstrate, maintain and asses the rigidity of the data
- Takes a long time to analyse
Define primary data
Any data collected by a researcher directly working with participants conducting experiments or observations
Give a strength of primary data
Researcher has greater control over the data. The data collection can be designed so it fits the aims and hypothesis of the study
Give a weakness of primary data
Lengthy and expensive process - Designing a study, recruiting participants, conducting and analysing results
Define secondary data
Collected when researcher want to use data that already exists often this involves taking the findings from other people’s research and re-analysing it in a different way
Define a meta-analysis
Where researchers combine the findings from multiple studies to draw an overall conclusion
Give a strength of secondary data
Data is readily available and inexpensive to obtain (less time consuming)
Give a weakness of secondary data
Data may not exactly fit the needs of your study and has undergone some form of interpretation and thus be biased
Describe raw data
The data we collect in any study is referred to as raw data
Describe measure of central tendency
A measure of central tendency reduces a large amount of data (this is called the raw data) to a single value which is representative of that set of data
What is the mode ?
The most commonly occurring or frequent score in a set of scores
What is the median ?
The middle value in a set of values (to find this you need to put all scores in order from lowest to highest)
How do you calculate the mean ?
Add up all the scores and divide by the number of scores
Give strengths of using mode as the central tendency
- It shows the most common or important score
- It is always a result from the actual data set, so can be a useful or realistic statistic
Give weaknesses of using mode as the central tendency
- It is not very useful if there are several modal values or if the modal value is only significantly more common than other scores
- It has little further uses in the data analysis
Give strengths of using median as the central tendency
- It is relatively quick and easy to calculate
- It is not affected by extremely high or low scores, so more representative
Give weaknesses of using median as the central tendency
- Not all scores are used to work out the median
- It has little further use in the data analysis
Give strengths of using mean as the central tendency
- Uses all the scores in a data set
- Used in further calculations and so handy to work out
Give weaknesses of using mean as the central tendency
- Can be skewed by high and low scores. This will make the average un-representative and misleading
- It can sometimes give an unrealistic value
What are the 2 main measures of dispersion ?
- Range
- Standard deviation
What is the range ?
The highest score minus the lowest score
What is standard deviation ?
The average amount each score deviates from the mean of that set of scores it is denoted by the symbol S
Give a strength of using the range
It is fairly easy and quick to work out
Give weaknesses of using the range
- It can be distorted by extreme scores
- It does not take into account all scores and fails to show if scores are evenly spread around the mean
Give strengths of using standard deviation
- All scores in the set are taken into account, so it’s more accurate than the range
- It can be used in further analysis
- In the same units and is a more useful measure of how far on average each score differs from the mean
Give a weakness of using standard deviation
It is not as quick or easy to calculate as the range
Steps to calculate standard deviation
- Write the values for score in variable 1 in the first column x
- Calculate the mean for the set of value x_
- Subtract each score from the mean score and write the answer to each in the second column x - x_
- Square each answer from the second column and write this in the third column (x-x_)^2
- Add together all the scores in column 3
- Divide this total by the number of scores - 1
- Take the square root of the answer
Define reliability
Consistency of measurement
Define validity
Measures what it claims to measure
Define inter-observer reliability
Refers to the extent to which different observers are able to observe and rate (or code) the same behaviour in the same way
Give strengths of a naturalistic observation
- Being able to observe the flow of behaviour in its own setting - greater ecological validity
- Generate new ideas
Give weaknesses of a naturalistic observation
- Demand characteristics
- Social desirability
- No control over extraneous variables
Give strengths of a controlled observation
- Easily replicated by other researchers
- Data is easier and quicker to analyse as it is quantitative
- Increases reliability
- Extraneous variables
Give weaknesses of a controlled observation
- Demand characteristics
- Lower ecological validity
- Can’t infer cause and effect
What is a structured observation?
Structured observation involves the use of tables of pre-determined categories of behaviour,, also known as a coding system or behaviour checklist
What is an unstructured observation?
Unstructured observations are when the observer records everything that happens
Define time sampling
Observations may be made at regular time intervals and coded (e.g. every 30 seconds for 5 minutes)
Define event sampling
When the observer(s) record specific occurrences of predetermined behaviours every time they occur continuously throughout the whole duration of the observation period
Give a strength of event sampling
Increased validity - less likely to miss behaviour as it is monitored
Give a weakness of event sampling
-Difficult to record all behaviours - may miss behaviour - reduced validity and reliability
Give strengths of time sampling
- Easier to record data
- Increased chances of obtaining reliable data
Give a weakness of time sampling
Reduced validity - miss behaviour
Give strengths of structured observations
- Reduced demand characteristics
- Easier to record data
- Increases reliability of data recording
Give weaknesses of structured observations
- Not easily generalised
- Reduced validity
Give strengths of unstructured observations
- More in depth results
- Valid - allows you to record all behaviours
Give weaknesses of unstructured observations
Difficult to analyse
-Difficult to achieve reliability
What is a participant observation?
A participant observation is when the observer acts as part of the group being watched/observed
What is a non-participant observation?
A non-participant observation is where the observer does not become part of the group being observed
Give strengths of participant observations
- Allows the research to gain a depth of knowledge
- Ability to record and monitor behaviour in closer detail
Give weaknesses of participant observations
- Time consuming
- Generates a vast amount of data
- Researcher variables
Give strengths of non-participant observations
- Better reliability because the researcher is less involved
- Researcher is less involved so people may act more naturally
Give weaknesses of non-participant observations
- Demand characteristics
- Reduced validity
What is an overt observation?
Where the participant(s) know they are being observed
What is a covert observation
Where the participant(s) are unaware that they are being observed
Strengths of an overt observation
- Enables the researcher to build some kind of rapport with participants
- More ethical
Weaknesses of an overt observation
- Time consuming
- Demand characteristics
- Difficult to repeat
- Not always representative
Give the key features of an observation
- An observation is the systematic measurement of spontaneously occurring behaviour
- An observation can be conducted in a controlled environment (e.g. lab) or in a naturalistic environment (e.g. playground)
- An observation can be structured (use pre-determined checklist) or unstructured (no pre-determined checklist)
- If structured, the researcher decides which behaviours they want to record and will produce a coding system with behavioural categories of behaviours
How can validity be improved in an observation?
- Reduce demand characteristics by observing covertly
- Carry out a pilot study to determine/check behaviour categories
- Check for inter-rater reliability by getting two or more observers to watch the same events and check their tallies against each others
How can reliability be improved in an observation
- pre observation training
2. Practice
What are open questions?
Open questions are questions in which participants respond by writing as much as they want in response to a statement or question - this produces qualitative data (rich detailed descriptive data)
What are closed questions?
Closed questions are questions in which participants have a forced/fixed choice of an answer - responses are predetermined by the researcher
Give an advantage of open questions
People are free to fully express an answer- you will get detailed information
Give a disadvantage of open questions
The information people give may be difficult to analyse and summarise
Give advantages of closed questions
- Allows quantitative data to be collected
- Easy to analyse
- Easy to fill in
Give a disadvantage of closed questions
-No space for detailed information or reasoning
What is a questionnaire?
A set of written questions that can be answered easily
What is informed consent?
Participants should be aware of the nature of any questionnaire and any sensitive questions in order that they are able to give informed consent
What does right to withdraw mean?
We must make it clear to all participants that they are free to withdraw during the study, or to miss out any questions they do not feel comfortable with, or to withdraw their data from a study after we have collected it
What does confidentiality involve?
We must maintain confidentiality of responses given and never reveal who said what in a questionnaire
What does anonymity mean?
Different to confidentiality, this is where even the researchers do not know the identity of the participants and can be achieved by using postal questionnaires
What does protection mean in terms of ethics?
Participants should not be embarrassed or made to feel uncomfortable in answering any questions. If we want to conduct research on a sensitive issue or ask about behaviour that could cause embarrassment, we have to take extra care over issues such as informed consent and confidentiality.
Give strengths of a questionnaire
- Allows us to measure attitudes, beliefs and opinions
- Collect a large amount of data relatively quickly
- Ease of analysis
- Standardisation/replication possible
- Quantitative data
Give weaknesses of a questionnaire
- Social desirability
- Untruthfulness
- Low response rate
- Lacks flexibility
- Interpretation
Give key features of a questionnaire
- A questionnaire is a set of pre-determined questions
- Questionnaires are designed to collect participants’ attitudes, beliefs and opinions on a given topic
- Questionnaires should include a range of open and closed questions
What are interviews?
Interviews are face to face conversations (sometimes interviews are conducted over the phone)
What are structured interviews?
Follow a fixed set of questions that are the same for all participants (predetermined questions)
Give strengths of a structured interview
- Easy to replicate (check reliability)
- Quick and easy to conduct
Give a weakness of a structured interview
-Lack flexibility (can’t adapt questioning)
What is a semi-structured interview?
Uses a fixed set of questions however allows interviewers to introduce new questions
Give strengths of a semi-structured interview
- Encourages two-way communication
- Provides qualitative data
- Open ended responses - more in depth information
Give weaknesses of a semi-structured interview
- Time consuming
- Possible to write leading questions
- You need to interview enough people to draw conclusions and make comparisons
What is an unstructured interview?
May have a set of discussion topics, but are less constrained about how the conversation goes (similar to a semi-structured)
Give strengths of an unstructured interview?
- Flexibility (adapt questioning)
- Generates lots of rich detailed data (increased validity)
Give a weakness of an unstructured interview
-Time consuming
Give strengths of interviews as a whole
- You can get both qualitative and quantitative data
- Can measure attitudes, beliefs, etc that cannot otherwise be measured
- Easy to replicate
Give weaknesses of interviews as a whole
- Social desirability
- Demand characteristics
- Lying
- Low response rate
Give the key features of an interview
- Interviews are useful for gathering more detailed information and enabling a more natural and flexible approach to questioning. The interviewer usually has certain topics that they want to explore but they still involve participants giving information about their views, opinions or attitudes on a specific topic
- Interviews can be structured, unstructured or semi structured
- An interviewer can ask closed and/or open questions to gather different types of data
What is a pilot study?
A small scale version (dry run) of the real research often carried out before the full scale research project begins
What is the purpose of a pilot study?
They are used to check the research works as it is intended to
What does a pilot study test for?
- Are there any demand characteristics?
- Are the instructions clear?
- Are the resources adequate (e.g. behaviour checklist)
- Are there any extraneous variables that could affect the results?
Why is an experiment the most scientific method of investigating behaviour?
It is the most systematic and objective way to observe, record and describe events and allows for control over variables
Why is an experiment the most scientific method of investigating behaviour?
It is the most systematic and objective way to observe, record and describe events and allows for control over variables
Give strengths of case studies?
- Rich detailed descriptive data - increased validity
- Tend to be high ecological validity
- Insight into unique/unusual behaviour (HM study)
What is time sampling?
Observations may be made at regular time intervals and coded (e.g. every 30 seconds for 5 minutes)
What is event sampling?
When the observer(s) record specific occurrences of predetermined behaviours every time they occur continuously throughout the whole duration of the observation period
What is content analysis?
It is where a researcher quite literally analyses the content of something, usually in order to transform complex qualitative data into quantitative data so that conclusions about patterns may be drawn more easily
Give advantages of content analysis
- It is a reliable way to analyse qualitative data as the coding units are not open to interpretation and so are applied in the same way over time and with different researchers (in essence to check reliability)
- It is an easy technique to use and is not too time consuming (easy to complete)
- Tend to have high ecological validity because they are based on observations of what people actually do
Give disadvantages of content analysis
- Causality cannot be established as it merely describes the data
- As it only describes the data it cannot extract any deeper meaning or exploitation for the data patterns arising
- Content analyses are only as generalisable as the artefacts being studied. If the artefacts are limited to a particular culture or group, then the findings won’t be generalisable to wider society
Define internal validity
Is related to what actually happens in the study. In terms of an experiment it refers to whether the IV really has had an effect on the DV or whether the DV caused by some other CV
Define external validity
Refers to whether findings of a study really can be generalised beyond the present study
What is face validity?
Refers to the extent to which a measure appears on the surface to measure what it is supposed to measure
What is concurrent validity?
Refers to the extent to which test results conform with those on some other valid measure, taken at the same time. In essence, whether a test or piece of research gives the same results as another tests or study, which claims to measure the same behaviour
What is temporal validity?
If the study passes the test of time i.e. it is replicated at a later date
What is population validity?
Refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalised to other populations of people
What is ecological validity?
Refers to the extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the present situation in to real life
What are the 7 ways to improve validity?
- Improving concurrent validity
- Single blind technique
- Double blind technique
- Eye ball test by ‘experts’
- Large sample and careful sampling: improving population validity
- Improving temporal validity
- Improving ecological validity
What are the two types of reliability?
- Internal reliability
2. External reliability
What is internal reliability?
How consistently a method measures within itself
What is external validity?
How consistently a method measure over time or between people
Describe nominal data
It’s simply a frequency count for distinct categories where something can only belong to one category e.g. number of people who pass or fail a driving test; number of smokers and non smokers. This is the most basic type of data
Describe ordinal data
This is where numbers can be placed in ascending or descending rank order e.g. on a rating scale where 1 = unattractive, 10 = highly attractive or coming 1st, 2nd, 3rd on a test. However, we do not know the true intervals between each position or rank
Describe interval/ratio data
Measurements are taken from a scale where each unit is the same size and the gap between each unit is fixed and equal e.g. The difference between a temperature of 100 degrees and 90 degrees is the same difference as between 90 degrees and 80. This is the most sophisticated type of data
Give a strength of nominal data
Useful to describe behaviours
Give two weaknesses of nominal data
- Quite simplistic
- Limited statistical value
Give a strength of ordinal data
- Useful when investigating opinions
Give two weaknesses of ordinal data
- Very subjective
- Scales require interpretation
Give a strength of interval/ratio data
Strongest statistical tests can be conducted
Give a weakness of interval/rational data
Often lacks ecological validity
What are the two types of statistical analysis?
- Descriptive statistics
2. Inferential statistics
What is descriptive statistics?
Estimations, ratios, percentages, frequency diagrams, simple calculations such as mean median and mode, graphs and charts and diagrams that allow us to see broad patterns or anomalies in a set of data
What is inferential statistics?
Statistical tests conducted on data using a set formula and then comparing the result we have calculated to data in statistical tables that can tell us whether any patterns we have found are statistically significant
How can you control design issues?
- Counterbalancing
- Random allocation
- Randomisation
- Single blind techniques
- Double blind techniques
- Standardised procedures
What are the key features of case studies?
- In depth investigation of one person or a small group of people
- Investigate naturally occurring events
- Can be longitudinal or retrospective
- Gathers a range of information
- Uses a number of methods to gather the information
Give a strength of event sampling
Increased validity - less likely to miss behaviour as it is monitored
Give a weakness of event sampling
Difficult to record all behaviour - may miss behaviour
Give a strength of time sampling
Easier to record data and increased chance of obtaining reliable data
Give a weakness of time sampling
Reduced validity - miss behaviour
Give weaknesses of correlational studies
- does not show cause and effect
- difficulties quantifying the variables
- does not allow for complex relationships
What are the key features of correlation?
- Measures the relationship between 2 variables
- The relationship can be positive or negative
- The relationship can be strong or weak
- Can be represented on a scatter gram and analyses using a Spearman’s Rho or Pearson’s R
What are the 5 features of science?
- Objective
- Empiricism
- Replicability
- Falsifiability
- Paradigm
What is a paradigm?
An agreed subject matter and set of procedures
What are Kuhn’s 3 stages in relation to the development of science?
- Pre science
- Normal science
- Revolutionary science
