Research Methods Flashcards
Quantitative data
MWthods of research using numbers & statistics that can easily be put into a graph. E.g. Graphs, official statistics
Qualitative data
Using exploration of people’s opinions, underlying reasons and motivation of certain things. E.g. Opinions, meanings
Primary data
Data that is directly collected by the researcher themselves. E.g. Interviews, Questionnaires, Observations & Experiments
Secondary data
The researcher gathers other sources of data but does not generate the data themselves. E.g. Diaries, letters, emails, TV documentaries
What does a researcher need to consider when carrying out research?
PET- Practical, Ethical & Theoretical
Practical Issues
- Time- Some methods require more time than others
- Money- Money is needed to apy researcher, transportation & resources
- Characteristics - Some researchers may be ok with dangerous situations
- Access & Opportunity - If researchers don’t have access to certain groups, they have to turn to secondary data
Ethical Issues
- Informed Consent - All participants must have openly agreed to take part.
- Deception- Researcher must be open & honest about the study and its implications
- Confidentiality - Details of participants and their actions must remain confidential and private
- Vulnerable Groups- People with learning difficulties may not fully understand what participation would include and it can be argued that it is then not informed consent
Theoretical Issues
Positivism - Use reliable methods that give quantitative data. Often use objective sources.
Interpretivism - Use valid methods that give qualitative data. Often use subjective sources
Why do positivists use quantitative data?
They believe Sociology should be scientific and analyse ‘social facts’ These are external things like laws. They like to use statistics to measure the relationship between factors and are more interested in ‘cause and effect’.
Why do interpretivists use qualitative data?
They believe that positivist methods don’t tell us much about how individuals act in society. They believe that sociology should not be scientific as ‘humans cannot be measured’ and believe that you can only understand human behaviour through empathy.
Validity
How well the study can be generalized and that the study has measured what it was intended to.
Reliability
The extent to which a study could be repeated and get the same results.
Representative
How accurately a study reflects the characteristics of the larger group
What factors influence a Sociologist’s choice of topic?
- Preference & knowledge
- Funding & Co-operation
- Career in Sociology
- Reviewing the Field
How does preference & knowledge affect choice of topic?
- Sociologists often specialise in certain topics and will therefore have more knowledge of it.
- They pick a topic they find interesting as if they don’t the research will likely be flawed due to their lack of interest
How does Funding & Co-operation affect choice of topic?
- The organisation that funds research is called ‘The Gatekeeper’ as they have the final say on most crucial decisions involving the research.
- Research cannot be carried out without funding
How does Career in Sociology affect choice of topic?
Sociologists tend to jump at the chance to improve their employability as certain topics become popular at certain times.
How does Reviewing the Field affect choice of topic?
The researcher analyses material to help clarify the issues around the subject and previous methodology.
Hypothesis
A prediction of what the results will show
Aim
The intent of the study
Operationalisation
Making concepts & ideas measurable
Reasons for conducting a Pilot Study
- establishes validity of research
- can adjust any issues in the method
Purpose of sampling
To represent a larger population
Sampling frame
List of everyone in the target population
Types of representative sampling
- Systematic
- Stratified
Types of non-representative sampling
- Opportunity
- Random
Two types of experiment
- Lab
- Field
Lab Experiment
Controlled environment. Changes IV & DV. Often used by psychologists
Field Experiment
Response to criticisms of Lab experiments. Real, social setting where those involved are often unaware. Used by interpretivists
Experimental group
The group that is exposed to the IV
The control group
The group that is not exposed to the IV but is used to measure against the experimental group
Why might positivists use lab experiments?
Lab experiments produce quantitative data that looks at how certain variables affect others and positivists are interested in ‘cause and effect’ to explain behaviour.
Problems with using lab experiments
- Hard to reproduce real social situations
- Can be described as artificial
- People may feel intimidated by the environment
Hawthorne effect
People may act differently if they are aware that they are being observed.
Free will
Idea that we are able to have some choice in the way we act and our behaviour.
Questionnaire
A social survey that can used open-ended or closed-ended questions.
Closed-ended questions
Gives quantitative data. Limited number of responses.
Open-ended questions
Cannot be answered with a static response. Gives qualitative data.
Types of questionnaire
- Postal
- Self-completion
- Face-to-face
- Internet
- Telephone
Advantages of questionnaires
- Easy to administer
- Reliable
- Anonymous, so they’re suitable for sensitive topics
- A large sample can be given them
Disadvantage of questionnaires
- Respondents may not tell the truth
- Questions may be misleading
- Respondents can’t give extra information
- Low response rate
Types of Interview
- Structured- Interviewer has a set list of questions to follow. Produces quantitative data.
- Unstructured - Not a predetermined set of questions, but usually has a certain topic in mind.
- Semi-structured - follow a general list of questions but they’re more open ended, allowing room for discussion
Advantages & disadvantages of structured interviews
+ - Reliable
- Used in large scale social surveys
- Interviewer can explain and clarify questions
- High response rate
- More expensive than questionnaires
- They can’t ask for more detailed as the questions are
set
Advantages and disadvantages of unstructured interviews
+ - Flexible
- Easy to gain trust and discuss sensitive topics
- Valid
- Interviewer needs to have skill to probe on certain
questions - Smaller samples, so less representative
- Long time to write up
- Interviewer needs to have skill to probe on certain
Non-participant observation
The researcher observes but is not actively part of the group
Participant observation
Researcher actively involves themselves in the group.
Covert observation
Researcher doesn’t tell the group they’re being observed
Overt observation
Group is aware they’re being observed and knows they’re being observed.
Advantages and disadvantages of covert observation
+ - Easier to gain access as permission is not needed.
- Less chance of Hawthorne effect - Better inside view of the group
- There may be danger to the researcher if they are
discovered, depending on the group to are involved
in, - There are a lot of ethical dilemmas, like deception
- There may be danger to the researcher if they are
Advantages and disadvantages of overt observation
+ - May be in the position of the trusted outsider and
receive confident information from group members
- Open and honest role, minimal ethical dilemmas
- Likely to be affected by Hawthorne effect
- Group may not trust an outsider
- Likely to be affected by Hawthorne effect
Advantages and disadvantages of participant observation
+ - Can get right where the action is. Explore dynamics
of the group better.
- Can lead to new inside to generate new theoretical
ideas
- Easier to ensure that they do no harm as they will
understand the needs of the group
- Time consuming & expensive
- The researcher may find it difficult to be objective in
their results - Likelihood of Hawthorne effect
Advantages & disadvantages of non-participant observation
+ - Easier to be objective
- Group is less likely to be influenced by the
researcher
- May limit understanding of the group
- Likelihood of Hawthorne effect
- May limit understanding of the group
