RESEARCH METHODS Flashcards
Define random sampling
Pros and cons
A sample in which and member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
- no bias
- hard to do in a large population
Define opportunity sampling
Pros and cons
Taking samples from people that are available at the time
- very general (variety of different samples)
- biased (same area=similar characteristics)
Define volunteer sampling
Pros and cons
Sign up for yourself
- easier to acquire participants (quicker)
- biased (likely to be more interested in their memory compared to the test)
Define snowball sampling
Pros and cons
Where Ps are contacted and asked if others have the characteristics they are looking for
- lots of info (rich inPs)
- smaller generic sample (similar to each other)
What is an alternative/experimental hypothesis?
Predicts there will be a significant affect
Describe the principle of respect (guidelines and description)
Informed consent, right to withdraw (stop when they want) and confidentiality (right to control flaw of info about themselves)
Describe the principle of integrity (guidelines and description)
Avoid deception
-occurs when person is not told the truth about research aims and not told what they are required to do
What are benefits and drawbacks of the principle of integrity?
- help Ps decide if they want to take part or not
- May reduce meaning of the research because aims are revealed
Description of the principle of competence (guidelines and description)
Recognise limitations of own competence, seek help when needed, professional duty of care
Description of principle of responsibility (guidelines and description)
Protection from harm (physical and psychological)
Debrief (inform Ps of the intentions)
What is a null hypothesis?
Predicts there will not have a significant effect
What is repeated measures design?
Strengths and weaknesses
Two conditions (compare results) Ps complete both conditions
- need fewer Ps
- difference between Ps is unlikely to distort the effect of IV
- higher chance of demand characteristics
- study takes longer
What is the independent measures design?
Strengths and weaknesses
Ps only complete one condition and compare with different people
- lower chance of demand Cs
- study is quicker (more time for analysis)
-needs more Ps
What is matched pairs design?
Weakness
One condition matched with Ps in another condition
Can’t accurately compare them (not exact match)=repeatability is lowered
What are strengths and weaknesses of lab experiments?
- control extraneous variables
- can’t repeat experiment=reliability is decreased
- lack off ecological validity (artificial setting=changed behaviour)
- risk of demand Cs
What is a field experiment?
Strengths and weaknesses
IV still manipulated by the researcher but in a real setting
- lower demand Cs
- increased ecological validity
- no consent, therefore debrief can’t be done=unethical
- can’t control extraneous variables
- can’t repeat=unreliable
What is a quasi experiment?
Strengths and weaknesses
IV naturally occurring and cannot be manipulated by the experimenter
-test variables that could not be ethically or practically manipulated
- hard to repeat (lacks validity)
- may cause offence (researching personal characteristics)
Define operationalise
Must specify exactly what the conditions will be
Define a one-tailed hypothesis
Predicts what will happen
Define counterbalancing
Eliminate order effects which could affect the results
Define extraneous variables
Variables that affect the DV
Define casuality
How one variable effects another variable
Define control
All ex. variables need to be controlled in order to be able to establish cause (IV) and effect (DV)
Define falsification
Only way to be certain that your theory/law is accurate
prove it wrong
Define objectivity
Researchers should remain totally value free when studying; try to remain totally unbiased in their investigation
Define replicability
Repeated or not (same people)
It can’t be replicated=not accepted
Define standardisation
Keeping everything the same for all Ps so that the investigation is fair
What is a positive correlation?
High values of one variable are associated with high values of another
Increase at a similar rate
What is a negative correlation?
High values of one variable are associated with low variables of another (still indicates a relationship)
What are third party variable effects?
Cannot assume cause and effect in correlational analysts //could be another variable
What are the strengths of correlational analysis?
- indicate possible relationships between co-variables (starting point of research)
- can be conducted on co-variables that can be measured but not manipulated (other measures may be unethical)
What are the weaknesses of correlational analysis?
- cannot demonstrate cause and effect relationships between co-variables because of third variable
- Only tested on variables with quantitative data (meaning they can lack understanding as to why someone behaves a certain way)
What do rating scales measure?
How strong someone feels about a particular statement
What are likert scales?
How strongly Ps agree to a statement
eg: strong disagree- strongly agree
What are semantic differential scales?
Words used are polar opposite (eg: boring-exciting) turns into quantitative data -boring (1) -exciting (5)
What are strengths and weaknesses of rating scales?
- likert=how strongly someone agrees (opinions much more complex =deeper understanding)
- quantitative data=analyse it statistically, it can be interpreted objectively
-quantitative lacks depth and understanding
(reduces validity-not true reflection)
-tendency to rate towards the middle of the scale (decrease validity, as Ps think its more socially accepted)
Describe open questions
Invite the respondent to provide their own answers and provide qualitative data (understand reasons behind behaviour)
Describe closed questions
Strengths and weaknesses
Limited/fixed choices
- quantitative (compare objectively)
- easy to compare as set Qs
-quantitative data lacks depth, Ps can’t express themselves fully
What are principles to consider with questionnaires?
- Clear Qs (simple sentences, no complex words)
2. Free from bias (researchers should not include own opinions)
Evaluation of questionnaires (both open and closed)
Repeatable (concurrent validity)
Easy to gather info, so you can test large samples
-more representative of population (population validity)
-identify trends
-make comparisons
Quantitative data-cannot elaborate (lacks depth=lacks validity)
Able to lie due to demand Cs and social desirability (not a true reflection)
What are structured interviews?
Strengths and weaknesses
Pre-planned questions that the interviewer cannot deviate from
- easy to repeat
- quick to conduct (more time to analyse the data)
- not flexible as Qs predetermined (can’t elaborate if misunderstood)
- expensive (need expert interviewers)
What are unstructured interviews?
Strengths and weaknesses
Allowed to probe to gather more information
- qualitative (deeper understanding)
- researcher will understand why P behaves a certain way
- takes long time to analyse
- hard to replicate
What is a semi-structured interview?
Strengths and weaknesses
Some predetermined questions but can ask follow up questions
-deeper insight
-takes a long time to conduct
Why would a researcher choose interviews over questionnaires?
> ask for clarification
explain what is meant by question
verbal communication can be better over written communication (especially in children)
Evaluation of interviews
- accessible to all
- face to face=increase validity
- immediate data collection
- qualitative and quantitative
- expensive (have to pay interviewer)
- Ps may be unwilling to open up to interview (questionnaires better for sensitive topics)
- lacks introspective ability (lacks validity)
What is external reliability?
How consistent procedure is when repeated-checked through test-retest, showing consistency
What is the test-retest?
Do the test, or self report, then repeat at a later date (good external reliability)
What is internal reliability?
Whether a procedure is standardised, must be able to repeat and get same or similar results
What is face validity?
Measuring what it claims to measure
What is construct validity?
Measuring all concepts of a human (skills, attributes and abilities)
What is criterion validity?
Extent to which one measure estimates or predicts the values of another related measure
What is the concurrent validity?
Comparison of new tests to the result of an older test
What is predictive validity?
The extent of how a previous event can affect the outcome of a future event
What is population validity?
Representative sample (accurate sample- range of ages, gender, education, etc)
What is ecological validity?
Whether the situation/ environment reflects the real life situation or not
What are controlled observations?
Pros and cons
Variables are controlled by the researcher
- no ex. variables
- repeatable (increases external validity)
- demand Cs (artificial setting)
- lacks ecological validity
What is a naturalistic observation?
Pros and cons
Observe behaviour in natural setting (eg: place with CCTV)
- no demand Cs
- increase ecological validity
- extraneous variables
- observer bias (drawn to stand out behaviour)
- harder to repeat
What is a non-participant observation?
Pros and cons
Researcher remains separate from the person they are observing
- no influence on behaviour
- less ethical issues
- can observe certain behaviour
- less detail and accuracy
What is participant observation?
Pros and cons
Research involved with the people they are observing
- can be the only way to observe behaviour (gangs/ cults)
- ecological validity (natural setting)
What is an overt observation?
Pros and cons
Ps aware they are being observed
-no influence on behaviour
- demand Cs
- observer bias (decreases validity)
What is a covert observation?
Pros and cons
Not aware they are being observed
- reduce demand Cs (decreases validity)
- less social desirability
- less ethical
- observer bias (stronger behaviour stands out)
Evaluate observations
- ecological validity (generalise behaviour and how it would be affected in a real life situation)
- risk of demand Cs (unaware as in natural setting)
- observer bias (can interpret behaviour in a subjective way-inter rater reliability needs to be checked)
- unethical (no consent)
How can you improve validity of observations?
Validity= whether a study measures or examines what it claims to measure
> ensure categories are clear
ensure the observer is well-trained
What is time sampling?
Pros and cons
Observe behaviour at certain time intervals
- reduce time spent on observations
- observer won’t become fatigued (not observing for long)
- behaviour may be missed
- accuracy reduced if several Ps observed at the same time
What is event sampling?
Pros and cons
Consists of the researcher recording an event every time it happens during a specified time frame
- less likely for behaviour to be missed
- useful when behaviour is infrequent
- reduce validity (tally doesn’t show how long lasting)
- may miss behaviour if too much happening at once
What are behavioural categories?
Pros and cons
Behaviours that are observed and recorded
-repeatable
(categories always the same=external reliability)
-observer bias (set behaviour checklist meaning not all behaviour will be recorded, decrease validity)
