Research Methods

Question 1

What is nominal data?

Answer 1

Data that can be categorised

Question 2

What is interval data?

Answer 2

Data that can be measure on equal interval scales e.g. height because it’s continuous

Question 3

What is ordinal data?

Answer 3

Data that can be placed into rank order e.g. in a race

Question 4

Steps of spearman’s ranks

Answer 4

1. Data is categorised into a table
2. Data is then ranked the lowest given a rank of 1 and so on (each column ranked individually). If there is a tied score the rank scores are added and divided (e.g. 10= 3+4 / 2 = 3.5)
3. 4.+5. Complete the difference (d) between the ranks. Rank 1 - Rank 2 and then squared (d2) then all the values are added together to give the sum Ed2(squared)
4. Rs = 1 -6Ed/n(n2-1)
5. Level of significance - this requires looking at the critical values of the spearman’s rank test in the critical value table for this test

Question 5

What is a one- tailed test, what is a two- tailed test?

Answer 5

One tailed is a directional hypothesis

Two tailed is a non- directional hypothesis

Question 6

What is inferential testing?

Answer 6

Ways to verify your data

Can use chi square, sign test, Mann Whitney u test, the unrelated t test, the related t test, Wilcoxon matched pairs, spearman’s rank or Pearson’s rho

Question 7

Steps to complete the sign test

Answer 7

1. Data is categorised into a table of results
2. Positive and negative signs need to be added. If conditions A is a yes and condition B is a no a plus is added and the opposite would be added.
3. Count up each positive and negative sign assigned to each participants scores.
4. The smallest of the total direction scores is the overall t test result
5. Level of significance - this requires looking at the critical values of the sign test in the values tables.

Question 8

Steps to complete the Chi square test

Answer 8

1. Label 1,2,3+4 on the observed and expected values
2. Calculate the degrees of freedom and expected values: degrees of freedom = (no. Of rows - 1) x (no. Of columns - 1)
   Expected values (e) = row total x column total / N
3. Fill out the rest of the table ( e, o-e, (o-e)2, (o-e)2/e )
4. Add the last column together to get E (the sum)
5. Look at the table of values to determine whether your information is valid or not

Question 9

How do you work out the expected values in the chi square test?

Answer 9

Row total x column total/ n

Question 10

What is the difference between a natural and a quasi experiment?

Answer 10

Natural- naturally occurring independent variable and a natural setting.

Quasi- naturally occurring independent variable in a lab setting (non-natural)

Question 11

What is a type I error?

Answer 11

Allow yourself to find a correlation where there isn’t one. Usually when the researcher uses 5% level of significance.

Question 12

What is a type II error?

Answer 12

When you reject your hypothesis because you have been too harsh on yourself e.g. you used 1% significance instead of 5% where a relationship could be seen.

Question 13

What is the difference between parametric and non parametric data?

Answer 13

Parametric data can fit in a graph (It’s interval or ratio) whereas non- parametric data can’t fit in a graph.

Question 14

If you are looking at a difference between variables, have nominal data and are using an independent group design what inferential test should you use?

Answer 14

Chi square

Question 15

If you are looking at a relationship between variables, are using a correlation design, and have ordinal data what inferential test should you use?

Answer 15

Spearman’s rank

Question 16

If you are looking at an association between variables and have nominal data what inferential test should you use?

Answer 16

Chi square

Question 17

If you are looking at a difference between variables, have nominal data and use a repeated measures design what test should you use?

Answer 17

Sign test

Question 18

If you are looking at a difference between variables, have ordinal/interval data, use an independent group design, and is non parametric what inferential test should you use?

Answer 18

Mann Whitney U test

Question 19

If you are looking at a difference between variables there is ordinal/ interval data, independent groups design and the data is non- parametric what inferential test should you use?

Answer 19

Unrelated t-test

Question 20

If you are looking at a difference between variables, have ordinal/ interval data, use a repeated measures design and the data is parametric what inferential test should you use?

Answer 20

Related t test

Question 21

If you are looking at a difference between variables have ordinal/ interval data, use repeated measures design and the data is non- parametric what inferential test should you use?

Answer 21

Wilcoxon matched pairs

Question 22

If you are looking at a relationship between variables, use a correlational design, and have interval/ ratio data what inferential test should you use?

Answer 22

Pearson’s roe

Question 23

What is alpha bias?

Answer 23

When the difference between the variables is exaggerated (e.g. Bowlbys nonproprietary theory)

Question 24

What is beta bias?

Answer 24

Beta bias is when the difference between the variables is minimised (usually happens when studies generalise results from one gender to the whole population)

Question 25

What is cultural relativism?

Answer 25

How relative somethings is to a certain culture

Question 26

What is ethnocentrism?

Answer 26

Using one culture and generalising it over other cultures.

Question 27

What is cultural bias?

Answer 27

Stereotyping a certain culture

Question 28

What is emic research?

Answer 28

- culture specific - potentially dangerous for exaggerating differences between cultural groups - reductionist as research fails to account for cultural sub-groups (gender sexuality etc)

Question 29

What is etic research?

Answer 29

- research from a specific culture is applied universally - studies take samples from a single population and generalise the findings to all - uses a between -group focus on research to study variations in behaviour

Question 30

What did Bem say? What year?

Answer 30

Androgyny is desirable 1974 This research is ethnocentric

Question 31

What did Brislin say? What year?

Answer 31

- intelligence testing in western cultures often involves completing tasks with a limited time - ‘mental quickness’ is valuable in western culture This research is etic 1976

Question 32

What did Wober say?

Answer 32

People in Uganda categorise intelligence as a slow process of careful and deliberate thought 1974 This research is emic

Question 33

What did Cochrane et al find?

Answer 33

That African-Caribbean population in the uk were 7 times more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia

Question 34

What did Littlewood et al find out?

Answer 34

That the African-Caribbean patients were often prescribed stronger doses of medication than white patients whist exhibiting the same symptoms

Question 35

What is free will?

Answer 35

The notion that humans can makes choices not based on biological factors

Question 36

What is a content analysis?

Answer 36

A research tool used to indirectly observe the presence of certain words, images or concepts within the media (e.g. advertisements, books, films etc). For example content analysis could be used to study sex-role stereotyping usually carried out on secondary data.

Question 37

How to conduct a content analysis

Answer 37

``` 1- familiarise yourself with your data 2- generalise initial codes 3- searching for themes 4- reviewing themes 5- defining and naming themes 6- producing the report ```

Question 38

What is a thematic analysis?

Answer 38

Brown and Clarke in 2006 | - looks for the emergent themes in data, codes them and then interprets their meaning

Question 39

How to check reliability

Answer 39

Inter- observer- reliability = observation Inter- rater- reliability = questionnaire Inter- interviewer- reliability = interviews

Question 40

A null hypothesis

Answer 40

You use this when you want to prove that you should discontinue a research study (there is no relationship)

Question 41

A directional hypothesis

Answer 41

You preempt the way your research will go in (the more/the less etc). What directional it will go in.

Question 42

Non directional hypothesis

Answer 42

You say there is a relationship but you don’t say the direction

Question 43

What is a paradigm shift?

Answer 43

A paradigm- a general law or principle that exists Paradigm shift- throughout history there have been shifts in our general laws, brought into question by further research

Question 44

What is the Harvard defence system?

Answer 44

Last name, First initial. (Year Published). Title. City: Publisher, Page (s)

Question 45

What is the difference between correlations and experiments?

Answer 45

- correlations don’t manipulate the IV but look at the relationship between the two co-variables - correlations don’t establish cause and effect. Look at the strength of the relationship known as the correlation coefficient - an experimental hypothesis tests for a difference, whereas an alternative hypothesis tests for a relationship between two variables In a correlational analysis can only be carried out on quantitative data. Essential to operationalise the co-variables, to enable they are clearly defined and measurable.

Question 46

Steps to complete the Wilcoxon matched pairs signed ranks test

Answer 46

1- find the difference between each set of scores. Some of these differences may well be positive and negative differences 2- rank the differences ignoring the - or the + signs. Giving the highest difference rank 1 3- calculate the sum of - ranks and the sum of the + ranks. T = the smallest sum of the two ranks 4- calculate the n value (not the same as calculating the degrees of freedom ) n= number of difference. 5- level of significance - look at the critical value table to see whether the data is significant.

Question 47

Steps to complete the Mann Whitney U test

Answer 47

1- data is ranked, the lowest given a rank of 1 and so on. If there is a tied score the rank scores are added and divided 2- total sum of rank 1 3- total sum of rank 2 4- formula U1 = N1 N2 + (N1 (N1 +1)/2) - ER1 Formula U2 = N1 N2 + (N1 (N1 +1)/2) - ER2 U1 = 10x10 + 10(10+1)/2 - total sum of rank one U2 = 10x10 + 10(10+1)/2 a total sum of rank two 5- Select whichever u value is the smallest as your calculated value 6- look at the critical table of values