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A Level: Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the IV

A

The variable that is changed (manipulated)

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2
Q

What is the DV

A

The variable that is measured by the researcher

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3
Q

Define operationalisation

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

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4
Q

Define extraneous variable

A

Any variable other than the IV that can affect the DV

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5
Q

What are confounding variables

A

Variables that are not the IV that have had an effect on the DV because they haven’t been controlled -thus confounding or ruining the results of a study making the results unreliable

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6
Q

What are situational variables

A

Things that are connected to the research situation which could affect the DV so should be controlled

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7
Q

What are participant variables

A

Things that are connected with the research participant which could affect the DV so should be controlled

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8
Q

Define aims

A

General statements of what the researcher intends to investigate the purpose of the study

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9
Q

Define hypothesis

A

A clear precise and testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated

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10
Q

What is a null hypothesis

A

One that always predicts that any difference or relationship is down to chance so there is NO significant difference

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11
Q

What is an alternative hypothesis

What are the two types

A

One that always predicts that something will happen

Non-directional and directional

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12
Q

Explain the difference between a directional and a non directional hypothesis

A

A non-directional hypothesis states that there is a difference but does not state the difference directly

Directional hypothesis clearly defines the difference that there will be between the two conditions (operationalises the outcome)

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13
Q

Briefly state the four different types of experiment

A

Lab experiment
Natural
Field
Quasi

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14
Q

Describe a lab experiment (evaluate)

A

The variables are highly controlled
Participants know they are taking part
Artificial
(Pro: establish cause and effect/can be replicated)
(Con: lacks ecological validity/ demand characteristics)

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15
Q

Describe a field experiment (evaluate)

A

Some control over variables
Participants do not know they are taking part
Real life
(Pro: high ecological validity/ less chance of demand characteristics)
(Con: cannot be replicated/ cannot establish cause and effect)

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16
Q

Describe a natural experiment (evaluate)

A 
No control over variables
Participants do not know they are taking part 
Real life (mostly)
(Pro: high ecological validity/less chance of demand characteristics)
(Con: cannot establish cause and effect/ cannot be replicated)
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17
Q

Describe a quasi experiment (evaluate)

A

Not strictly an experiment
Variables just exist
(Pro: can establish cause and effect/ replicated)
(Con: lacks ecological validity/ demand characteristics)

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18
Q

Briefly name and explain the three experimental group designs

A

Independent group design= different participants do each condition (one each)
Repeated measures= all participants do both conditions
Mixed pairs design= different participants are matched to one another and each placed in separate conditions

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19
Q

Evaluate independent Group design

A

✅Reduced demand characteristics

✅No order effects

❌Participant variables

❌More participants needed

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20
Q

Evaluate repeated measures design

A

✅No participant variables

✅Less participants needed

❌Demand characteristics

❌Order effects

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21
Q

EValuate matched pairs design

A

✅Reduced participant variables

✅No order effects

❌More participants needed

❌Difficult to match exactly

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22
Q

Name for ways that variables can be controlled

A

Counterbalancing

Standardisation

Randomisation

Random allocation

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23
Q

Explain what is meant by counterbalancing

A

It does not remove or prevent order effects but attempts to balance out the effects of order between two conditions
Half the participants take part in condition A then B the other take part in conditions B then A

used ONLY IN repeated measures

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24
Q

Explain what is meant by standardisation

A

All participants are subjected to the same environment information and experience

Same instructions and tasks

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25
Q

Explain what is meant by randomisation

A

To reduce bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions

minimise the effect of extraneous variables

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26
Q

Explain what is meant by random allocation

A

To address the problem of participant variables ONLY in an independent group design participants should be randomly allocated to different conditions

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27
Q

Define demand characteristics

A

Participants revealing the purpose of the investigation and changing their behaviour

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28
Q

Define generalisation

A

Extent to which findings and conclusions from an investigation can be applied to the population

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29
Q

What is volunteer sampling and evaluate

A

Participants select themselves to be part of an experiment

✅Less time-consuming
❌Volunteer bias

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30
Q

What is opportunity sampling

A

Researcher selects those who are most readily available

Pro= easy less time consuming
Con= researcher bias
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31
Q

What is random sampling and evaluate

A

Researcher picks names out of hat of those in the target population RANDOMLY

Pro=unbiased
Con=does not guarantee a representative sample

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32
Q

What is systematic sampling

A

Gather names of those in target population and use a system, e.g every other 6 people are selected

Pro=avoid researcher bias
Con=not objective (researcher chooses how people are listed etc)

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33
Q

What is stratified sampling evaluate

A

Identify different sub groups in population, work out the ratio needed, randomly sampling participants from each sub group

Pro=very representative/ no researcher bias
Con= time consuming

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34
Q

When is a orrelation used

A

When there is a relationship

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35
Q

Evaluate using a correlation

A

✅Good preliminary tool for research=establish a link
✅used to study behaviour when it would be unethical to do so in a experiment
❌does not show cause and effect

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36
Q

Explain the difference of covert and overt

A

Covert is observing people without their knowledge

Overt is observing people who know they are being studied (pro=no ethical issues over privacy etc)

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37
Q

Explain the difference between participant or non participant
Evaluate this

A

Participant= observations are made by someone who is also a participant
Pro=good insight / con=less objective- too involved

Non participant= the observer is separate from the people being observed
Pro=more objective/ less insight (outsider)

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38
Q

What is the difference between event or time sampling

A

Event sampling involves counting the number of times a behaviour occurs

Time sampling= counting the behaviour within a fixed time frame

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39
Q

Define content analysis

A

Analysing qualitative data (turning into quantitative)

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40
Q

Evaluate content analysis

A

Pros:less ethical issues
Ecological validity
Replication

Cons: observer bias

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41
Q

Name three measures of central tendency

A

Mean
Median
Mode

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42
Q

What are descriptive statistics

A

The use of graphs or tables to summarise data

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43
Q

What does standard deviation tell us

A

How much the scores are spread out from the mean

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44
Q

Evaluate standard deviation

A

Pro=more precise as includes all scores

Con= distorted by a single value

45
Q

What does it mean if there is a:
Large standard deviation
Small standard deviation

A

Large= scores deviate a lot from the mean- very spread out-less consistent

Small- scores don’t deviate much-less spread out-more consistent

46
Q

When should we use a:

  • bar chart
  • scatter graph
  • histogram
A

Bar chart=discrete data/clear categories
Scatter graph=correlation
Histogram=continuous data

47
Q

What does significance mean

A

A statistical term that indicates the association between two variables is strong enough to accept the ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

48
Q

What is the standard level of significance called

A

5% significance level (p=0.05)

49
Q

If the results for the statistical test is significant what does this mean

A

Reject the null hypothesis

Accept the alternative hypothesis

50
Q

If the results of the statistical test are not significant what does this mean

A

Accept the null hypothesis

Reject the alternative hypothesis

51
Q

What is a type 1 error

A

FALSE POSITIVE
errors which occur when the results are significant but when they actually occurred due to chance

More likely to occur the larger the probability level used

52
Q

What is a type 2 error

A

FALSE NEGATIVE
Occurs when results are not significant but they actually were

More Likely to occur the smaller the probability used

53
Q

What is a level of measurement

A

Refers to the data gathered off participants

54
Q

What is nominal data

A

Data that is in categories and frequencies

55
Q

What measure of central tendency is used for nominal data

A

Mode

56
Q

What is ordinal data

A

Scores in rank order

Any numerical score

57
Q

What measure of central tendency is used for ordinal data

A

Median

58
Q

What is interval data

A

Data that has intervals between each score

The intervals are equal

59
Q

What measure of central tendency is used for interval data

A

Mean

60
Q

Why do we use a statistical test

A

To allow us to make decisions about the result

To allow us to decide objectively whether the results are significant or not using standardised tests

To allow us to accept or reject the correct hypotheses and make conclusions of inferences from our research

61
Q

Name the test of difference for independent measures for reach type of data

A

Nominal= chi squared test
Ordinal= Mann Whitney U-test
Interval=unrelated t-test

62
Q

Name the test of difference for a repeated measures or matched pairs experiment for each type of data

A

nominal data-Sign test
Ordinal data-Wilcoxon sign test
Interval data-Related T-test

63
Q

Name the test of relationship for a correlation for each type of data

A

Nominal- chi-squared test
Ordinal-spearman’s RHO correlation
Interval- Pearson’s correlation coefficient

64
Q

How can u tell if the results are significant or not

A

Compare the calculated value with the critical value

Then u decide to accept or reject the null and alternative hypothesis

65
Q

Name the tests which are GREATER or equal to the critical value

A 
Chi-squared test
Unrelated t test 
Related t test
Spearman’s RHO
Pearson’s correlation coefficient
66
Q

What do u need to know to find the critical value

A

Level of significance
One tailed or two tailed
Number of participants

67
Q

What is a one tailed/two tailed test

A

A one tailed hypothesis is directional

A two tailed test is non directional

68
Q

Define ethical issues

A

These arise when a conflict exists between participants rights and researchers needs to gain valuable and meaningful findings

69
Q

What are the 4 ethical issues- briefly describe

A

1) informed consent- participants must be informed clearly about the purpose of the research so can make an informed decision about whether or not to participate
2) deception- not told true aims of the study- cannot make an informed consent
3) protection from harm- participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects
4) privacy and confidentiality- concerns participants personal information being protected

70
Q

How would you deal with:
Informed consent
Deception

A

A debrief and right to withdraw

71
Q

How would you deal with protection from harm

A

Design- researchers to not expose participants to any harm beyond what they might experience in real life

Counselling may be provided

72
Q

How would you deal with privacy

A

Anonymity- participants identified as a number rather than their name

73
Q

Why should we use statistical tests

A

Allow us to draw conclusions from the results
Allow us to decide objectively if the results are significant
Allow us to accept or reject the correct hypothesis

74
Q

What are the three different types of statistical test for nominal

A

Unrelated test of difference- chi-squared test
Related test of difference- sign test
Test of relationship ( correlation )- chi-squared test

75
Q

What are the different statistical tests for ordinal data

A

Unrelated test of difference- Mann Whitney u test
Related test of difference- wilcoxon sign test
Test of relationship- spearmans RHO correlation

76
Q

Describe the different statistical tests for interval data

A

Unrelated test of difference- unrelated t- test
Related test of difference- related T-test
Test of relationship (correlation)-pearsons correlation coefficient

77
Q

What does unrelated mean

A

Independent groups

78
Q

What does related mean

A

Repeated measures/ mixed pairs

79
Q

What is nominal data and what central tendency is used

A

Data is in categories and frequencies- mode

80
Q

What is ordinal data and what central tendency

A

Scores in rank order from a rating scale

Median

81
Q

What is interval data and what type of central tendency is used

A

Data which has equal intervals between each score- mean

82
Q

To decide whether results are significant, what are we comparing

A

The CALCULATED VALUE from the statistical test
With the
CRITICAL VALUE found in the table

83
Q

What must happen for the results to be significant

A

In stats test with an R in there name only

The calculated value must be gReater than the critical value
__________________________________________________
However in stats tests that don’t have an R in them
The calculate value must be lower than the critical value to be significant

84
Q

What three things must you know to calculate the critical value

A

1) level of significance
2) once tailed or two tailed
3) number of participants in the study

85
Q

What does one tailed mean

A

Directional hypothesis

86
Q

What does two tailed mean

A

Non directional hypothesis

87
Q

define reliability

A

refers to how consistently it measures what it is supposed to measure

88
Q

name two ways to asses reliability

A

test-retest reliability

inter-observer reliability

89
Q

define test-retest reliability

A

the experiment is carried out initially and then again at a later date

when the two sets of data are compared, a correlation coefficient of +0.8 demonstrates that the measure has reliability

90
Q

what is the correlation coefficient that shows the measure has reliability using test-retest reliability

A

+0.8

91
Q

what is inter-observer reliability

A

the extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers

92
Q

when using inter-observer reliability, what is the correlation coefficient for the results to be considered reliable

A

it should exceed +0.8

93
Q

how would you improve reliability when using test-retest reliability

A

1) reduce ambiguity of questions such as in a questionnaire

2) ensure procedures are exactly the same as before

94
Q

how would you improve reliability when using inter-observer reliability

A

1) make behavioural categories clearer

2) practise using the behavioural categories

95
Q

define validity

A

the extent to which something is measuring what its supposed to measure ( accuracy)

96
Q

what are the two types of validity

A 
internal validity ( within the study)
external validity (after the study)
97
Q

what are the four types of validity

A

1) face validity- seeing if it looks Like it measures what its supposed to measure
2) concurrent validity- comparing a new test with an already well established test
3) ecological validity- the ability to generalise beyond the particular setting
4) temporal validity- ability to generalise research beyond the particular time period of the study

98
Q

how would you improve face validity

A

revise and improve the questions to relate more obviously to the topic

99
Q

how would you improve concurrent validty

A

remove irrelevant questions

100
Q

what are the five features of science

A 
Theory
hypothesis testing
empirical methods (direct testing)
objectivity
replication
101
Q

what does falsifiability mean

A

the possibility that a statement or hypothesis can be disproved

102
Q

define paradigm

A

an agreement upon a set of assumptions and methods about the subject matter of a discipline

103
Q

define economy

A

the state of a country in terms of the production

104
Q

what’s the purpose of an abstract

A

provide a short summary of the study- allows reader to see if report is relevant

105
Q

what’s the purpose of an introductuon

A

provides background information on theories and studies relevant to the investigation
explains how hypothesis came about
described past research

106
Q

whats the purpose of method

A

provides the specific design details of the study

allows other researchers to replicate the research or potentially improve the method

107
Q

what’s the purpose of the results section

A

include any descriptive statistics or any inferential tests

108
Q

what’s there purpose of discussion in a report

A
  • dsicuss finding sin relation to a previous report
  • implications for human behaviour
  • outline any limitations
  • suggest areas for further research
109
Q

what’s the purpose of referencing

A

helps the reader find original source

adds authenticity to the argument

A Level: Psychology (11 decks)

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