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A Level: Psychology > Issues And Debates > Flashcards

Issues And Debates Flashcards

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1
Q

Define universality

A

Exists in all conditions

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2
Q

Define alpha bias

A

Occurs when the differences between men and women are exaggerated

Stereotypical Male and female traits are emphasised

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3
Q

Define beta bias

A

Occurs when the differences between men and women are MINIMISED

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4
Q

Define androcentrism

A

Taking Male behaviour as normal

Regarding female behaviour as deviant, inferior and abnormal

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5
Q

Define gynocentrism

A

Refers to anything that focuses on women in either theory or practise or focuses exclusively on female and feminist issues

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6
Q

Give an example of gender bias in the psychodynamic approach

A

ALPHA BIAS:
Process of identification during phallic stage (psychosexual stages of development)
-women passively identify
-men actively identify
.: women do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identity with their fathers
So develop weaker superegos

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7
Q

Give an example of gender bias in moral development

A

BETA BIAS: Lawrence kohlberg
Heinz dilemma- girls reach stage 3 of morals whereas boys reach stage 4

Assumed moral reasoning is the same in men and women- example of beta bias because he assumed the female responses would apply to everyone

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8
Q

Criticise Lawrence Kohlbergs work

A

Carol Gilligan- women have a different set of criteria, morality of care

Men have a morality of justice

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9
Q

Describe gender bias in the fight or flight response

A

BETA BIAS

Biological research on this is carried out on Male animals

This assumes the fight or flight response is universal

.: the differences have been minimised as it was assumed to be universal

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10
Q

What are the negative implications of gender bias in psychology

A
  • creates misleading assumptions about female behaviour, failing to challenge negative stereotypes
  • gender bias in research could have damaging consequences which affect the lives of real women, eg females are 2x more likely to be diagnosed with depression than men
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11
Q

What did Taylor et al find

A

Provided evidence that females have a tendency-and-befriend response, this is adaptive because it ensures the survival of their offspring

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12
Q

Name a strength of gender bias

A

Means current researchers are much more careful when designing their studies and developing theories so to avoid possible gender bias

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13
Q

Two consequences of gender bias

A

Androcentrism

Gynocentrism

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14
Q

Define cultural bias

A

To what extent do the theories, models and concepts considered in psychology represent human behaviour

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15
Q

Define universality

A

Exists in all conditions

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16
Q

Define ethnocentrism

A

A belief that your society, group or culture is superior to all others, differences in groups are seen as bad

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17
Q

Define cultural relativism

A

States that an individuals belief and activities must be considered in terms of that persons own culture

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18
Q

How is ainsworths strange situation an example of cultural bias

A

German parents may be viewed as cold

Ainsworth is culturally biased, studied within one culture and assumed the ideal attachment type can be applied universally

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19
Q

How is definitions of abnormality an example of cultural bias

A

Ideal mental health:
Autonomy and high self esteem scream individualistic culture

Social norms:
-hearing voices in east is normal but in the west your a schizophrenic

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20
Q

How is intelligence testing culturally biased

A

Tests in west measure intelligence against the clock

Uganda 🇺🇬 characterise intelligence as slow, careful, deliberate thought

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21
Q

Name three universal behaviours

A

Kohlbergs stages of gender development ( strengthened by munroe)

Facial expression and emotions- ekman

International synchrony

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22
Q

What four aspects of the research process where ethical issues with social consequences may occur did Stanley and Sieber identify

A

1) the researcher question
2) treatment of participants
3) institutional context
4) interpretation and application of findings

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23
Q

What are the ethical implications from Raines research into brain scans of violent criminals

What are the potential benefits

A
  • self forfilling prophecy
  • euthanise
  • abortion if brains cans show the abnormality

Benefits:
- people could provide extra support to these kids- less crimes committed

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24
Q

Ethical implications of bowlbys maternal deprivation theory

A
  • suggests mothers should not go back to work

- blames mother for child

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25
Q

Ethical implications of autism research ( auyeung)

A

Found a high level of testosterone in the amniotic fluid was a predictor of autistic traits

Aborting babies who may potentially be autistic (before even being given a chance to display autistic tendencies)

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26
Q

Ethical implications of social control

A

USA 1920/30 sterilisation of people with a low IQ, addicts and mentally ill

Criticised for scientific racism

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27
Q

How do u deal with the following issues:

Lack of informed consent
Deception
Protection from harm

A

1) prior general consent
2) write a debrief
3) support and counselling

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28
Q

Define biological determinism

A

The belief that all behaviour and thought is caused by the action of the nervous system and genetic factors

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29
Q

Define psychic determinism

A

The belief that all thought and behaviour is caused by unconscious forces

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30
Q

Define environmental determinism

A

Belief all behaviour is under the control of environmental stimuli and external forces of reward and punishment

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31
Q

Define soft determinism

A

All behaviour is determined or caused by a persons own character wishes or conscious desired goal s

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32
Q

Define hard determinism

A

Belief that behaviour is caused by events outside of your personal control

Free will is an illusion

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33
Q

Give two examples of biological determinism

A
  • biopsychology
  • speech caused by specific areas of the brain

Psychopathology
- OCD COMT and SERT gene - neurotransmitter level’s and orbital frontal cortex

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34
Q

An example of environmental determinism

A

Phobia

  • learnt through environment
  • little Albert
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35
Q

Give an example of psychic determinism

A

Gender development

Psychosexual stages of development- fixation causes behaviour later in life

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36
Q

What is the scientific emphasis on causal laws

A

The idea that in order to be scientific theory must be cause and effect

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37
Q

What does science aim to provide

A

Prediction and control

38
Q

3 criticisms of being determinist

A

❌removes moral responsibility
❌free will doesn’t fit science
❌mental disorders

39
Q

Explain the idea that determinism removes moral responsibility

A

Determinism is inconsistent with societies ideas of self control and personal responsibility, these ideas form the basis of our moral and legal assumptions

40
Q

Why is it that free will does not fit with science

A

No causal explanation for free will

Science aims to predict our behaviour and control it, free will says people are able to control what they do

41
Q

Why do mental disorders criticise free will

A

Schizophrenia- despite the patients longing for the symptoms to end, it is not optional and there is no free will in the matter

42
Q

Which two approaches argue free will is an illusion

A

Behaviourism- one thinks you are making a choice but you are unaware of reinforcement histories

Psychodynamic- one thinks you are making a choice but it’s really driven by unconscious forces

43
Q

Define the debate nature vs nurture

A

The extent to which particular aspects of behaviour are a product of either inherited or acquired influences

44
Q

Define nature

A

Genetic, hormone, traits and dispositions

45
Q

Define nurture

A

Environment, culture and experience

46
Q

Define nativist

A

Certain skills or abilities are hardwired into our brains at birth

47
Q

Define empiricist

A

Gaining knowledge through experiences

48
Q

Define heredity

A

The process by which traits are passed down from one generation to the next

49
Q

Define interactionist approach

A

View that both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour

50
Q

Describe the medical condition Phenylketonuria in relation to the nature nurture debate

A

Caused by the inheritance of two recessive genes, people with PKU are unable to hydrolyse amino acids phenylalamine which builds up in blood and the brain causing mental retardation

This disorder is not expressed because of an altered environment

51
Q

Describe psychopathology in relation to nature and nurture

A

Twin studies- nestadt- high concordance rate

Not 100% so nurture must also be a factor

52
Q

Implications of Accepting nature alone

A

Removes moral responsibility- unable to change yourself

53
Q

Implications of nurture

A

In therapy- changing environment changes behaviour

54
Q

What is the theory on niche picking

A

People create their own nurture by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for Their nurture

Eg an aggressive child will choose an aggressive environment

55
Q

What are epigenetics

A

Material that acts like a set of switches to turn genes on/off

Life experiences such as nutrition or stress control these switches

These switches are passed to subsequent generations

56
Q

Define the holism v reductionism debate

A

What’s the best way to explain behaviour: one component or the whole person

57
Q

Define holism

A

Preceding the whole experience rather than the individual features and the relations between them

58
Q

Define reductionism

A

Belief human behaviour is best explained when broken down into smaller parts

59
Q

Define biological reductionism

A

Explains social and psychological phenomena at a lower biological level

60
Q

Define environmental reductionism

A

Explain behaviour in terms of stimulus- response links to what has been learned through experience

61
Q

Define parsimony

A

Means simplest theory with the least assumptions and variables with greatest explanatory power

62
Q

Define levels of explanation

A

Lowest level- considers biological explanations - brain genes hormones

Middle level- psychological explanation

Highest level- social and cultural explanations

63
Q

Explain how elements of biopsychology are reductionist

A

Genetics and neurochemical imbalances are frequently highlighted as the main causes of disorders - biologically reductionist

64
Q

How are is ocd reductionist

A

Biologically reductionist - OCD

Drug therapy

65
Q

How is social influence holistic

A

Conformity and group behaviour may show characteristics that are greater than the individual alone

66
Q

Evaluate biological reductionism

A

Drugs do not cure the underlying issues and so do not have a long term impact

Drugs also have side effects which can sometimes be highly dangerous

67
Q

Give an example of environmental reductionism

A

Phobias

  • classical conditioning and operant conditioning
  • a strength of being environmentally reductionist is that it gives people the power to change their phobias (through treatment)
68
Q

Criticise environmental reductionism

A

How her one weakness of environmental reductionism is animal studies-

Explanations are limited because you can’t generalise animals onto humans

69
Q

What do experiments reduce things down to

What does this allow to be establish

A

Isolated variables

Establish a causal relationship

70
Q

Criticise experimental reductionism

A

Experimental research operationalises variables in behaviour such as eyewitness memory, the results however may be more different in real life

Eg effect of anxiety on EWT

  • Johnson and Scott
  • yuille and cutshall
71
Q

What scientific assumption does reductionism work with

A

Parsimony

72
Q

Give a strength of experimental reductionism

A

Reductionism is in-line with the scientific approach and the findings can be replicated and verified

Therefore reductionism has greater test ability than a holistic explanation

73
Q

Strength of holism

A

Gives a more complete understanding

Eg the Stanford prisoners behaviour can only be understood when considered within the context of the prison and relationships between prisoners and guards

74
Q

Criticism of holism methods

A

Does not fit with scientific testing

Holism does not have isolated variables- cannot establish causes and effect

Holistic view lacks scientific credibility

75
Q

Criticise reductionism

A

A limitation of reductionist view is that if only lower levels of expansion are considered then the true meaning may be overlooked

Eg SSRIs given to people with OCD

76
Q

Describe interactions in reductionism

A 
Diathesis= biology- predisposition
Stress= psychological- trauma

Interaction is between levels of explanation

77
Q

Define the idiographic nomothetic debate

A

What is the best way to investigate behaviour

Should we focus on the individual you are dealing with
Or make generalisations about behaviour

78
Q

Define idiographic

A

An approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour

QUALITATIVE

79
Q

Define nomothetic

A

Attempts to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws

QUANTITATIVE

80
Q

Define qualitative

A

Non numerical- data is collected through interviews and open questions

81
Q

Define quantitative

A

Numerical and can be statistically analysed

82
Q

Define humanism in terms of being idiographic

A

Described each individual as unique and having free will

Unable to gain qualitative data

83
Q

How is bowlbys maternal deprivation hypothesis nomothetic

A

If a child does not have a secure attachment with mother- will be affection less psychopath

❌kolouchova twins demonstrated maternal deprivation could be overcome

84
Q

How is behaviourism nomothetic

A

Generalised everyone could learn through reinforcement

85
Q

How does psychodynamic approach have elements of both idiographic or nomothetic

A
  • case study method qualitative (little Hans)

- but nomothetic- assumed universal laws of behaviour and personality development

86
Q

Implications of adopting a nomothetic approach

X2

A

❌generalisations overlook the richness of human experience

❌quantitative data does not include detail, loses insight into personal experiences

87
Q

Implications of an idiographic approach

X2

A

❌qualitative data relies on subjective interpretation - open to bias

❌more difficult to compare and analyse data

88
Q

Instead of interactionism what does idiographic nomothetic approach suggest

A

They are complementary rather than contradictory

89
Q

how does the multi store model display the multi store model

A

through laboratory based research alongside unique case study examples

90
Q

what are the four aims of science, which are typically idiographic or nomothetic

A

1) to describe (i)
2) to understand (i)
3) to predict (n)
4) to control (n)

91
Q

name the three types of law

A

1) classifying people into groups
2) principles of behaviour
3) establishing dimensions

92
Q

What are the three nomothetic laws

A

1) classic thing people into groups- eg DSM- IV
2) principles of behaviour - can be applied to people in general
3) establishing dimensions on which people can be placed

A Level: Psychology (11 decks)

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