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Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What does an experimental method involve?

A

An experimental method involves manipulating an IV to measure the effect on the DV

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2
Q

What is an aim?

A

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate

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3
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A clear statement (prediction) that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated

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4
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis that states the direction of the difference between variables in study

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5
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis that does not state the direction of the difference between variables in study

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6
Q

What is an IV?

A

What we are changing in the experiment

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7
Q

What is a DV?

A

What we are measuring in an experiment

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8
Q

What is operationalising?

A

clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured (e.g. counting number of mistakes in a test)

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9
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A

A variable, other than the IV, that can affect the DV if it is not controlled

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10
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

A variable, other than the IV, that may have already affected the DV

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11
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

When a participant changes their behaviour to suit the experimenters expectations/please the experimenter

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12
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the research outcome (can be unconscious)

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13
Q

What is randomisation?

A

The use of chance to prevent the effects of bias (e.g. mixing up words in a list)

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14
Q

What is standardisation?

A

Using exactly the same procedures and instructions for all participants in a study (reduced extraneous variables)

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15
Q

Define experimental design and name 3 examples?

A

The different ways a set of participants can be organised (to take part in conditions)

  • Independent group design
  • Repeated measures design
  • Matched pairs design
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16
Q

What is independent group design?

A

When participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents an experimental condition

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17
Q

What is repeated measures design?

A

When the same group of participants takes part in both condition

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18
Q

What is random allocation?

A

A method that prevents participant variables (in independent group design )so that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other

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19
Q

What is counter balancing?

A

A method that prevents ‘order effect’ in repeated measures by having participants experiences a set of conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order

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20
Q

What is matched pairs design?

A

When pairs of participants are matched on some variables that could affect the DV. Then, one member of the pair is assigned to one condition whilst the other member is assigned to the other

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21
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of independent group design?

A

Advantage:

  1. No order effect

Disadvantage:

  1. Participant variables may be present
  2. May take more time and effort as more participants are needed
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22
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of repeated measures design?

A

Advantages:

  1. Less effort as less participants needed
  2. Participant variables are controlled

Disadvantages:

  1. Order effects may be present
  2. Demand characteristics may be present
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23
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of matched pairs design?

A

Advantages:

  1. Participants only take part in a single condition so demand characteristics and order effects aren’t a problem

Disadvantages:

  1. Matching is complicated. Extraneous variables may be present
  2. Matching may be time consuming and expensive
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24
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A

An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment to eliminate the presence of extraneous variables. The researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV

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25
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

An experiment that takes place in a natural/real-life setting. The researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV

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26
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

An experiment in which the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on the DV

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27
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

An experiment that is based on an existing difference between people (e.g. age/gender)

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28
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a lab experiment?

A

Strengths:

  1. Control over extraneous variable so cause and effect relationship can be established (high internal validity)
  2. High level of control means easy to replicate

Weaknesses:

  1. Lacks generalisability as setting is artificial and in an unfamiliar context, people may behave in unusual ways (low external validity)
  2. Pps usually aware they are being investigated in a lab exp. so demand characteristics may be present
  3. Tasks in lab experiments dont reflect real-life experiences (low mundane realism)
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29
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a field experiment?

A

Strengths:

  1. High mundane realism as more likely to include real-life experiences
  2. High external validity as Pps behaviour may be more valid and authentic in a real-life setting

Weaknesses:

  1. No control of extranous so can’t see cause and effect clearly. (low internal validity)
  2. Likely to be unethical as Pps may not be aware that they are being studied (in a natural setting)
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30
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a natural experiment?

A

Strengths:

  1. Researchers dont have to worry about practical or ethical issues as opportunities come by chance
  2. High external validity as it involves real-life problems and issues

Weaknesses:

  1. Naturally occuring events are very rare, reducing opportunities for research
  2. Participants cant be randomly allocated so participant variables may be present. (means we cant clearly see cause and effect)
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31
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a quasi experiment?

A

Strengths:
1. often take place in a contorlled environment so share same strengths as a lab experiment

Weakness:
1. Participants can’t be randomly allocated to participant variables may be present

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32
Q

What is a population?

A

The group of people from which a sample is drawn (the group that the researcher is interested in)

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33
Q

What is a sample?

A

The group that is chosen to take part in the investigation. They are chosen from the target population and represent them

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34
Q

What are sampling techniques?

A

The method used to select people from the population

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35
Q

What is sampling bias?

A

When certain groups may be over/under represented within the sample selected e.g. may be too many young in a sample. This makes it hard to generalise

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36
Q

What is generalisation?

A

the extent to which findings can be broadly applied to the population

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37
Q

What is random sampling?

A

A method in which all members of a population have an equal chance of being picked

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38
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

When every nth person from a population is selected to take part in an investigation

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39
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Selecting anyone who is willing and available at the time to take part in an investigation

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40
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

When participants select themselves to be a part of a sample

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41
Q

Evaluate the use of random sampling

A

Pros:
- free of researcher bias

Cons:

  • time consuming and expensive
  • can end up with a sample that is still unrepresentative
  • selected participants may refuse to take part
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42
Q

Evaluate the use of systematic sampling

A

Pros:
- free of researcher bias

Con:
- CAN be unrepresentative (not always)

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43
Q

Evaluate the use of opportunity sampling

A

Pros
- saves time and effort

Con:

  • unrepresentative as sample’s only drawn from specific area so results cant be generalised
  • Can include researcher bias
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44
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

A method in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups within the target/wider population

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45
Q

Evaluate the use of stratified sampling.

A

Pro

  • Avoids researcher bias
  • more representative of target population than other methods

Con
- Not always perfect and cannot reflect all the ways that people are different so COMPLETE representation isnt possible

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46
Q

Evaluate the use of volunteer sampling?

A

Pro
- Saves time and effort

Con
- May attract someone who is e.g. keen/curious, which might affect how far findings can be generalised

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47
Q

When do ethical issues occur?

A

When conflict exists between the rights of the participant and the aims of the research

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48
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Informed consent involves making Pps aware of their role in the research, the aim/procedure of the research, their rights, and what the data will be used for (before they make the decision on whether to take part or not)

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49
Q

What is deception and what does the BPS say about it?

A

Deception is delibaretly misleading/withholding info from the participants.

It is only allowed in some cases, where it doesnt cause the pp undue distress. (It can also lead to accurate results in an investigation)

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50
Q

What is ‘Protection from harm’?

A

Ensuring that pps are protected from physical or psychological harm. This includes making them feel embarrassed, distressed, or under pressure

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51
Q

What does ‘privacy’ refer to?

A

The idea that participants have the right to control information about themselves

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52
Q

How can psychologists deal with ‘protection from harm’ and ‘deception’?

A

Debriefing
- Letting the participants know about every element of the study, after it has taken place, so that they are not misled

Withdrawal
- Pps can be given choice to withdraw their data at the end of the investigation (or at any point during study)

Counselling
- If they have been psychologically affected, researcher should provide counselling

53
Q

What are the British Psychological society responsible for?

A

They come up with a set of ethical guidelines that psychologists must follow, in order to protect the rights of the participant, whilst also allowing the researcher to carry out the aim of their research

54
Q

How should psychologists gain informed consent?

A

Pps should be given a consent form, containing all relevant information that may affect their decision on whether they would like to take part

55
Q

How should psychologists deal with participant data?

A

They should protect their data but it is more usual to not hold any personal data at all and refer to pp with numbers and code names.

56
Q

What is a pilot study and name one reason why its useful?

A

A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real thing to check that materials/procedures e.t.c all work properly and to allow the researcher to make changes if necessary

Pro
- it saves time and money

57
Q

What is a single-blind procedure?

A

When Pps are not told about important details of the investigation, to ensure that demand characteristics wont be present

58
Q

What is a double-blind procedure?

A

When neither the researcher or the Pps are aware of the aims of the investigation (e.g. in drug trials)

59
Q

What is a control group useful for?

A

Comparison and hence, establishing a cause and effect

60
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would usually occur (e.g. studying behaviour of teachers IN SCHOOLS)

61
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured setting e.g. a setting were some variables are managed

62
Q

What is a covert and overt observation?

A

Covert- When a participants behaviour is watched and recorded without them knowing

Overt - When a participants behaviour is watched and recorded without them knowing

63
Q

What is participant and non participant observation?

A

Participant observation - When the researcher BECOMES a part of the group that is being studied (to allow the researchers to give a first hand account and hence, improve study)

Non participant - When the researcher remains outside of the group that is being watched/recorded

64
Q

Evaluate the use of naturalistic observations?

A

Pros:
- High external validity

Cons
- Hard to replicate due to lack of control over extraneous variables

65
Q

Evaluate the use of Controlled observations

A

Pros:
- easier to replicate

Con:
- harder to generalise to real-life settings

66
Q

Evaluate the use of covert observations?

A

Pros
- high validity as there are no demand characteristics

Con
- Ethical issues

67
Q

Evaluate the use of overt observations

A

Pros
- more ethical than covert

Con
- can involve demand characteristics, and affect experiment’s validity

68
Q

Evaluate the use of participant observation

A

Pros
- Gives researcher first hand account of study, increasing validity of findings

Con
- Researcher may forget the real aim of the study and identify too strongly with participants (may ‘go native’)

69
Q

Evaluate the use of non-participant observation

A

Pros
- Researcher ‘going native’ is less of a danger

Con
- they lose the valuable insight that they could’ve gained from a ‘participant observation’

70
Q

What are behavioural categories and what should the psychologists ensure when using this method?

A

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are clear, observable and measurable (similar to operationalising).

Components should try to include ALL the ways that the target behaviour can be displayed

71
Q

What happens in event sampling?

A

An event is first established and then the researcher records this event every time it occurs

72
Q

What happens in time sampling?

A

A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame e.g. every 60 seconds

73
Q

What are structured and unstructured observations?

A

Structured - when the researcher records everything they see in detail (usually uses few participants)

Unstructured - uses clearly defined pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling method

74
Q

Evaluate the use of structured observations

A

Pros

  • structured observations (using behavioural categories) makes recording data easier and more systematic
  • quantitative data makes analysing and comparing data easy

Con
- may not get information in detail and depth

75
Q

Evaluate the use of unstructured observations

A

Pros
- richness and depth of detail (qualitative data)

Con

  • information collected may not be the ‘most important/useful’
  • ‘observer bias’ (when experimenter uses knowledge to influence their observations)
76
Q

Evaluate the use of behavioural categories

A

Pros
- makes data collection more structured and objective (easier to analyse)

Con

  • hard to ensure that all categories for a type of behaviour are shown
  • hard to ensure that categories dont overlap
77
Q

Evaluate the use of event sampling as a sampling method?

A

Pro
- useful when behaviour happens quite infrequently and could be missed if time sampling was used

Con
- If event is too complex, observer may overlook imporant details when using event sampling

78
Q

Evaluate the use of time sampling as a sampling method?

A

Pro
- Effective in reducing the number of observations that have to be made

Con
- time when behaviour is sampled may not be representative of the observation as a whole

79
Q

Whats a self-report technique?

A

A method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, related to a given topic

80
Q

What is a questionnaire?

A

A set of written questions used to assess a persons thoughts and feelings

81
Q

What is an interview?

A

A face-to-face interaction between an interviewer and interviewee

82
Q

What are open and closed questions?

A

Open - does not have a fixed range of answers and allows respondents to answer in as much detail as they want (qualitative data)

Closed - includes a fixed range of answers to limit their responses (quantitative data)

83
Q

EVALUATE the use of open and closed questions

A

Open - rich in depth and detail but is hard to analyse

Closed - Data is easy to analyse but lacks depth and detail

84
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of using questionnaires?

A

Strengths

  • cost effective
  • gathers large amounts of data (reduced effort)
  • reduces effort as researcher doesnt have to be present
  • usually includes closed questions so easy to analyse

Limitations

  • Demand characteristics (social desirability)
  • produces a response bias - acquiescence bias (respondents reply in a similar way e.g. always ticking ‘yes’ as they may fail to read questions etc)
85
Q

What are structured interviews?

A

Interviews which include a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order

86
Q

What are unstructured interviews?

A

Interviews that have no pre-determined questions and are more like a conversation. Interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate their answers

87
Q

What are semi-structured interviews?

A

Interviews that are between a structured and an unstructured interview e.g a job interview

88
Q

Evaluate the use of structured and unstructured interviews

A

Structured interviews - easy to replicate and analyse. Eliminates differences between interviews but interviewees cant elaborate their answers

Unstructured interviews - more flexibility so interviewer learns more about interviewee. BUT, it is hard to analyse and social desirability may be present. Good Interviewers can avoid demand characteristics from arising by building sufficient rapport between the two

89
Q

What is a likert scale?

A

a scale in which respondent indicate their level of agreement with a statement (strong agree - strongly disagree)

90
Q

What is a rating scale?

A

a scaling which uses a value to represent a strength of feeling towards about a particular topic (e.g. 1 being very entertaining and 5 being not entertaining at all)

91
Q

What is a fixed choice option?

A

Respondents are given a list of possible options and told to indicate all those that apply to them

92
Q

What are the key features of designing an interview?

A
  1. STANDARDISED interview schedule (list of questions interviewer intends to cover), to avoid interviewer bias
  2. Conduct interview in quiet room to help interviewee open up more
93
Q

What are the key features of writing good questions in a questionnaire/interview?

A
  1. Avoid overuse of jargon
  2. Avoid leading questions
  3. Avoid showing personal feelings on a topic (in a question)
  4. Avoid double-barreled questions (two questions in one - as pps may only agree with part of statement)
  5. Avoid double negatives in questions (they are confusing)
94
Q

Define correlation?

A

A technique that shows us the strength and direction of a relationship between variables being studied

95
Q

What are co-variables?

A

Variables investigated within a correlation (e.g. not the IV and DV)

96
Q

Define positive, negative and zero correlations?

A

Positive correlation - as one co-variable increases, so does the other

Negative correlation - as one co-variable increases, the other decreases

Zero correlation - No relationship between co-variables

97
Q

What is the difference between correlations and experiments?

A

Experiment - researcher manipulated IV and measures effect on a DV so cause and effect relationship is established

Correlation - no manipulation of any variable so no cause and effect relationship is established. Cant assume that one variable is the cause/effect of another, intervening variables may come into play

98
Q

What are the strengths of correlations?

A
  • provides precise and quantifiable measure of how 2 variables are related
  • suggests ideas for future research
  • used as a starting point to assess possible patterns before trying experiments
  • quick and economical to carry out as controlled environment is not needed and data can be taken from others (e.g. government statistics) to save time
99
Q

What are the limitations of correlations?

A
  • only tells us how variables are related but not why
  • does not show cause and effect
  • sometimes correlations are stated as FACTS when there are, in fact, intervening variables
100
Q

What is primary data and secondary data?

A
  • Data that had been collected first hand by the researcher and to be used specifically for research purposes
  • Data that had been collected by someone else, rather than the researcher, and already exists before the investigation begins
101
Q

Evaluate the use of primary and secondary data

A

Primary data - fits the job. Specifically targets the information that the researcher needs but it requires time, money and effort

Secondary data - Doesn’t require too much time, money, and effort but content of data may not exactly suit researchers needs (e.g. may be outdated)

102
Q

What is meta analysis?

A

When a number of research studies that have investigated the same area, are reviewed to produce a conclusion

103
Q

Evaluate the use of qualitative data

A

Pros
- rich in detail so greater insight into s view, thoughts and feelings (so easier to generalise to other people - greater external validity)

Cons

  • difficult to analyse
  • often rely on subjective interpretations so can be biased
104
Q

Evaluate the use of quantitative data?

A

Pros

  • easy to analyse so comparisons can be drawn
  • interpretations tend to be more objective and less biased

Cons
- narrow in scope and meaning so cant be applied to real-life (low external validity)

105
Q

What are descriptive statistics?

A

The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data

106
Q

Define the term ‘measures of central tendency’ and describe the 3 measures in this category

A

Measures of central tendency - any measure of the average value in a set of data

Mean - Arithmetic average calculated by adding up all values and dividing by how many there are

Median - central value in a set of data, arranged from lowest to highest

Mode - most common value in a set of data

107
Q

Evaluate the three measures of central tendency

A

Mean - is representative of whole data but can be easily distorted by extreme values

Median - Isn’t affected by extreme values and is easy to calculated BUT is not representative of whole data

Mode - Very easy to calculate and is the only way to calculate average for ‘data in categories’ BUT it is not representative of the data as a whole

108
Q

Define the term ‘measures of dispersion’ and describe the 2 measures in this category

A

Measures of dispersion - measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores

Range - measure of dispersion, calculated by taking away lowest value from highest and then adding 1

Standard deviation - Tells us how much scores deviate from mean by calculating difference between mean and score. Differences are added up and divided by number of scores to give the variance. Standard deviation is the square root of the variance

109
Q

Evaluate the two measures of dispersion

A

Range - Easy to calculate but only takes into account the highest and lowest number so its unrepresentative of the data as a whole

Standard deviation - Very representive of whole data as it takes into account every value BUT it can be distorted easily by extreme values

110
Q

Name three ways of presenting and displaying quantitative data

A
  1. Summary table - with summary paragraph beneath table, explaining results
  2. Bar chart - IV on x axis, DV on y axis. Use when data is divided into categories
  3. Scattergraph - to show correlations
111
Q

What is normal distribution?

A

A distribution of data that forms a bell shaped curve on a graph, where most people occupy the same mid-point of the curve (Mean, median AND mode point on graph)

112
Q

What is skewed distributions?

A

Where distributions appear to lean to one side

113
Q

What is a positive skew and give an example?

A

When distributions lean towards left side of the graph (e.g. in scores in a test, if most failed, then mode would be peak and median be in middle, but mean may be pulled towards right of the graph due to high scoring candidates)

114
Q

What is a negative skew?

A

Distributions lean towards right side of graph (opposite of positive skew)

115
Q

How do you calculate percentage?

A

Number/total *100

116
Q

Define the concept of significance?

A

To determine whether findings occurred by chance or not

117
Q

What is a sign test?

A

A simple statistical test to test for a significant difference in nominal data (in a repeated measured)

118
Q

What is the accepted level of probabliity that a set of results occur by chance?

A

5%

119
Q

What should you end up with at the end of a statistical test?

A

A calculated value

120
Q

What is the critical value and what do we need to know to calculate it?

A
  • Value to be achieved for significance. Its found in the table of critical values
  • we need to know the number of pps, the probability level and whether the test is one tailed or two tailed
121
Q

What is statistical testing?

A

tests to determine whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected by finding significant differences in data

122
Q

Describe how to conduct the sign test

A
  1. Count up the plus and minuses and take the less frequent sign and call it S
  2. Compare our calculated value with the critical value (by looking at table and using information about No. of participants and whether the hypothesis was one or two tailed)
123
Q

What is ‘peer review’?

A

The assessment of scientific work by specialists in the field

124
Q

What are the main aims of peer review?

A
  1. To allocate research funding - to decide whether or not to award funding for a proposed research project.
  2. To validate the quality and relevance of research - assess for quality and accuracy
  3. To suggest amendments or improvements - Improving reports etc
125
Q

Evaluate the use of peer review.

A

Anonymity - whilst anonymous peer reviews means more honest reviews but this could also lead to people criticising due to grudges and competition for funding (so some choose not to be anonymous)

Publication bias - Some researchers may only publish positive results and bury up any statistics that dont want seen

limits progress - peer reviewers may be more focused on finding ideas that match with current opinion, then reviewing new and innovative ideas

126
Q

What are some implications of psychological research for the economy?

A
  1. Attachment research - research shows that both parents can provide support for children so many couples share childcare responsibilities and work fliexible hours in order to maximise their income and contribute more effectively to the economy
  2. Developments of treatments for mental illness - Research into the causes of illness have allowed us to make suitable treatments for people so that they dont have to miss work, saving the economy lots of money
127
Q

What 4 things should you consider if you are setting up an obedience experiment like Bickmans or milgrams?

A
  1. The ‘order’
  2. Choosing a suitable sample size (small)
  3. Consider ethical issues
  4. Use a control group to make comparisons
128
Q

What test could you conduct to see whether a high score on an extraversion scale is related to telepathic powers?

A

The zener test

129
Q

What ethical issues could arise during the zener test and how would you deal with them?

A
  1. Socially desirable answers (on extraversion scale)
    - could deal with this by not telling them what questionnaire measures until debriefing
  2. Confidentiality
    - could deal with this by keeping data confidential

AS Psychology (7 decks)

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