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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Define coding

A

The format in which info is stored in various memory stores

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2
Q

Describe the procedure of Baddeley’s study

A
  1. Tested pps on acoustically similar and dissimilar words

2. Tested pps on semantically similar and dissimilar words

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3
Q

What were the findings of Baddeley’s study?

A
  1. Immediate recall was worse with acoustically similar words. STM is coded acoustically
  2. Recall after 20 mins was worse with semantically similar words, suggesting, LTM is coded semantically
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4
Q

Define capacity

A

The amount of info that can be held in a memory store

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5
Q

Describe the procedure that Joseph Jacobs used to measure digit span

A

Researcher reads 4 digits and increases until pp cant recall order correctly

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6
Q

What were the findings of Joseph Jacobs study?

A

On average, pp’s could repeat back 9.3 numbers and 7.3 letters in the correct order immediately after they were presented

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7
Q

What inferences did George Miller make about capacity?

A
  1. The span of the STM is about 7 +/-2 (as most things come in 7’s e.g. the days of the week)
  2. This can be improved by chunking - grouping together digits/letters into meaningful units
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8
Q

Evaluate research on coding?

A

Strengths
1. Controlled experiment: eleninates extraneous variables so allows us to see clear cause and effect relationship (so high in internal validity)

Limitations
2. Words used in study had no personal meaning to pps. When processing more meaningful info, people may use semantic coding even for STM tasks, so we can’t generalise to every memory task

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9
Q

Evaluate research on capacity?

A

Strengths
1. Joseph Jacobs results supported by miller’s inferences (7±2)

Limitations

  1. Confounding variables: Early research in psychology lacked control over extraneous variable, so people may have been distracted during Jacobs digit span task
  2. Overestimated capacity of STM: Other research have found that STM has a capacity of 4 chunks (not 5)
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10
Q

Define duration

A

The length of time info can be held in the memory

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11
Q

Describe the procedure of Peterson and Peterson’s research into the duration of STM

A

24 students were given a conconant syllable to remember and a 3 digit number to count backwards from for 3,6,9, 12, 15 or 18 secs

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12
Q

Describe the findings of Peterson and Peterson’s research into the duration of STM

A
  1. Students recalled 80% of the syllables correctly with a 3 second interval
  2. Average recall after 18 seconds fell to about 3%, suggesting that duration of STM without rehearsal is about 18-30 seconds
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13
Q

Describe the procedure of Bahrick et al’s research into the duration of the LTM?

A

Pps were 392 Americans aged between 17 and 74 and were tested through:

  1. A recognition test : 50 photos from pps high school yearbook
  2. Free recall test: pps listed names of their graduating class
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14
Q

Describe the findings of Bahrick et al’s research into the duration of the LTM?

A
  • Pps tested 48 years after graduaion were about 70% accurate in photo recognition.
  • Free recall was less accurate (30%), suggesting LTM can last very long
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15
Q

Evaluate research on duration

A

Strengh
- LTM High external validity: Real-life meaningful memories were used (faces). Recall rates were lower in other studies when meaningless pictures were remembered

Limitations

  • STM low external validity: Peterson and Peterson didn’t use real-life memories
  • Confounding variable: In bahrick et at’s study, using real-life memories could’ve meant that pps rehearsed faces over the year
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16
Q

Draw a diagram describing the multi-store model

A

drawn diagram

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17
Q

What does the multi-store model emphasise?

A
  1. 3 memory stores (SR, STM, LTM)

2. Explores how info is transferred from one store to another, how it is remembered, and how it is forgotten

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18
Q

How does info pass into the sensory register?

A

It enters the sensory register through our senses

- It contains different memory stores for each sense

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19
Q

What is the capacity and duration of the sensory register?

A

Capacity: Very high - over 100 million cells in one eye, each storing data
Duration: Very brief - less than half a second

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20
Q

How does info move from the SR into the STM?

A

By paying attention to the info

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21
Q

What is the duration and capacity of the STM?

A

Duration: 18-30 secs unless info is rehearsed
Capacity: 7+/-2

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22
Q

How is info kept in the STM/transferred to the LTM?

A

Maintenance rehearsal

- we repeat material to ourselves to keep in info in the STM. If we rehearse it long enough, it moves to LTM

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23
Q

How do we recall info from the LTM?

A

Through the STM by a process called retrieval

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24
Q

What is the capacity and duration of the LTM?

A

Capacity: Potentially unlimited
Duration: Up to a lifetime

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25
Q

Evaluate the multi-store model

A

Strengths
- Research evidence: Baddeley showed that STM is acoustic, whilst LTM is semantic, supporting idea that stores are separate and independent

Limitations

  • More than one type of STM: KF was better at a visual digit task, than an auditory task, suggesting that there must be different stores to process visual/audio info
  • Generalising KF study: Dispositional factors may have affected KF study so we can’t generalise results.
  • Lacks external validity: Mainly used meaningless items like digits, letters and syllables, word lists, to measure memory and not useful things like peoples faces and names, so doesnt reflect real-life
  • Oversimplifies LTM: Ignores semantic (general knowledge) and procedural (how to do things) stores
  • Oversimplifies STM: Working memory model may be a better explanation
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26
Q

Name the 3 different types of Long Term memory

A
  1. Episodic memory (recalling events from our lives)
  2. Semantic memory (knowledge of the world)
  3. Procedural memory (how to do things)
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27
Q

Why is the episodic memory complex?

A

They are complex as:

  1. Time stamped - you remember when they happened
  2. They involves several elements e.g. people, places and things woven into 1 memory
  3. You must make a conscious effort to recall them
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28
Q

What are the 2 main differences between semantic memory and episodic memory ?

A
  1. Semantic memories are not time-stamped

2. Semantic knowledge is less personal and more about general knowledge

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29
Q

Why would it be hard to explain procedural memory skills to others?

A

Because effort/conscious awareness isnt used when recalling skills from our procedural memory

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30
Q

Evaluate the 3 different types of Long Term memories

A

Strengths

  • support for different stores: Clive wearing and HM had difficult recalling events in their life (episodic) but semantic memory was unaffected (e.g. the dog)
  • Brain scans: Tulving et al found that episodic and semantic were found on different parts of the pre-frontal cortex using PET scanners
  • Real-Life applications: Belleville et al found that episodic memories can be improved by cognitive impairments. Treatments led to improvement (compared to control group)
  • More comprehensive than multi-store model.

Limitations

  • Confounding variables: with HM and Clive Wearing, researchers couldnt control variables such as personality, so its difficult to generalise
  • May only be 2 types of LTM: Episodic and semantic are both declarative (memories that can be consciously recalled) and procedural can be its own distinct non-declarative store
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31
Q

What is the working memory model?

A

An explanation of how STM is organised and how it functions
- It is concerned with the part of the brain that is active when temporarily storing and manipulating info e.g. when playing chess

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32
Q

What are the 4 main slave systems of the WMM?

A
  1. Central executive
  2. Phonological loop
  3. Visual-spatial sketch pad
  4. Episodic buffer
33
Q

What is the central executive?

A

An attentional process that monitors incoming data and allocates slave systems to tasks
-has a very limited storage capacity

34
Q

What is the phonological loop?

A

Slave system that deals with auditory information and preserves order in which info arrives

  1. It is subdivided into:
    - Phonological store: stores the words you hear
    - Articulatory process:allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds to keep them in WM)
35
Q

What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

Slave system that stores visual and/or spatial info when needed (e.g. how many windows in home)

  1. It is subdivided into:
    - Visual cache: stores visual data
    - Inner scribe: records arrangement of objects in visual field
36
Q

What is the episodic buffer (2000)?

A
  1. Temp store for info that intergrates visual, spatial, and verbal info from other stores
  2. Maintains sense of time sequencing - recording events that are happening
  3. Links to LTM
37
Q

Evaluate Baddeley and Hitch’s WMM

A

Strengths

  • Research evidence: KF performed better on visual task than auditory task, suggesting that there are separate visual and acoustic stores
  • Evidence for VSS in dual tasks: Baddeley found participants did worse on 2 visual tasks than doing a visual and verbal task at same time as both visual tasks compete for same resources.
  • Support for phonological loop through word length effect: Baddeley found people had more difficulty remembering longer words as there is limited space for rehearsal in the articulatory process (this effect disappears if someone is given a repetitive task to keep the articulatory process active)
  • More comprehensive than multi-store model
  • Support from brain scanning studies: Activity in pre-frontal cortex increased as a task became harder, as the CE needed to work harder to fulfil its function

Limitations

  • Lack of clarity over central executive: May consist of more separate components, not just ‘attention’
  • Individual differences: KF’s findings can’t be generalised to everyone
38
Q

Define interference

A

When 2 pieces of info are in conflict with each other, causing forgetting in LTM as we can’t get access to memories even though they are available

39
Q

What are the 2 types of interference

A
  1. Proactive interference

2. Retroactive interference

40
Q

What is Proactive interference (Pi)?

A

When an older memory disrupts a newer one e.g. when a teacher learns many names in the past but cant can’t remember names of current class

41
Q

What is Retroactive interference (RI)?

A

When a newer memory disrupts an older one e.g. when a teacher learns many new names this year and can’t remember names of current class

42
Q

Why is interference worse when memories are similar?

A
  1. In Pi, previously stored info makes new info more difficult to store
  2. In RI new info overwrites previous memories which are similar
43
Q

What was the aim of McGoech and McDonald’s experiment?

A

To test the effects of similarity in interference

44
Q

What was the procedure for McGoech and McDonalds experiment

A
  1. Pps asked to learn list of words with 100% accuracy
  2. Pps given a new list of words and tasks were split into 6 groups
  3. In next 5 groups, words including synonyms, antonyms, unrelated words, consonant syllables, 3 digit numbers
  4. In last group, pps could just rest (control group)
45
Q

What were the findings of McGoech and McDonaldss experiment?

A

Findings: Most similar material (synonyms) produced worst recall whilst recall was better when pps given very different material (3 digit numbers)

Conclusion: Interference is stronger with similar material.
- It is likely that the synonyms blocked access to the original words, or that new material became confused with old material

46
Q

Evaluate the interference theory of memory

A

Strengths

  • Evidence from lab studies: McGoech and McDonalds lab exp. (high control of extraneous variables)
  • Evidence from real-life studies: Baddeley and Hitch tested players on teams they played. Accurate recall depended on No. of games played in meantime (RI)

Limitation

  • Artificial materials: word lists dont reflect what we memorise in every day life e.g. faces.(low external validity)
  • Limited time to learn words: Time to recall word lists is usually quite short in lab experiments (low external validity)
  • Interference effects may be overcome using cues: Tulving et al found that pps performed better when word lists were categorised. This cue made it easier to access forgotten words in LTM
47
Q

What can cause retrieval failure? (a form of forgetting)

A

It can be caused by a lack of cues

  • When info is initially placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time
  • If these cues aren’t available at the time of recall, you might not be able to access memories that are actually there
48
Q

What is the Encoding specificity principle (ESP)?

A

Tulving suggested that:

  1. Cues help retrieval if the same cues are present at encoding and at retrieval
  2. The closer the retrieval cue to the original cue, the better the cue works
49
Q

Can cues be linked to the material-to-be-remembered in a meaningful way?

A

Yes

50
Q

In what ways can cues NOT depend on meaning?

A
  1. Context-depending forgetting: When memory retrieval is dependent on an external cue e.g. weather/place
  2. State-dependent forgetting: When memory is dependent on an internal cue/state of mind e.g. feeling upset, being drunk
51
Q

What was the procedure of Godden and Baddeleys experiment on Context-dependent forgetting?

A
  1. Cues were the conextx were learning and recall took place - on land or underwater
  2. Divers learned word lists and were later asked to recall them
    a. Group 1: Learn on land - recall on land
    b. Group 2: Learn on land - recall underwater
    c. Group 3: Learn underwater - recall on land
    d. Group 4: Learn underwater - recall underwater
52
Q

What were the findings of Golden and Baddeleys experiment on Context-dependent forgetting?

A
  1. When environmental contexts of learning and recall didnt match (Group 2 and 3), recall was 40% lower than when they did match
53
Q

What was the conclusion of Golden and Baddeleys experiment on Context-dependent forgetting?

A

Conclusion
- study demonstrated context-dependent forgetting as unmatching conditions led to retrieval failure (due to a lack of cues)

54
Q

Evaluate the retrieval failure theory

A

Strengths

  • Research evidence: Godden and Baddeleys lab experiment (with high control of extraneous variables and therefore high in validity)
  • Application for Context-related cues: When we lose something, we go back to last place we remember having it. jmbh, (cognitive reinstatement - also used to get eyewitnesses to remember info about crimes)

Limitations

  • Context effects arent strong irl: Contexts have to be ENTIRELY different in order for them to have an effect
  • contect effects only appear when testing recall: When experiment was repeated but recognition was tested, pps performed same in all conditions
  • ESP can’t be tested and leads to circular reasoning: No way to establish whether a cue had really been encoded
55
Q

What are the 2 explanations for why leading questions affect witness testimonies?

A
  1. Response-bias explanation: Wording of question has no enduring effect on an eyewitness’s memory, but influences the kind of answer given
  2. Substitution explanation: Wording of question does affect eyewitness memory as it interferes with its original memory, distorting its accuracy
56
Q

Describe the procedure of Loftus and Palmers study on the effect of leading questions

A
  1. 45 pps watched film clips of car accidents and then answered questions about speed
  2. Critical (leading) question: About how fast were the carsgoing when they hit each other’
  3. 5 groups of pps given a different verb in critical question: hit, contacted, bumped, collided or smashed
57
Q

Describe the findings/conclusion of Loftus and Palmers study on the effectof leading questions

A

Findings: The verb contacted produced a mean estimated speed of 31.8 mph, whilst the verb ‘smashed’ showed a mean of 40.5 mph

Conclusion: leading question biased eyewitness recall of an event. The verb ‘smashed’ suggested a faster speed of the car than ‘contacted’

58
Q

What are the 2 aspects that make up ‘post event discussion’?

A
  1. Memory contamination: When co-witnesses discuss a crime, they mix (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories
  2. Memory conformity: Witnesses go along with each other to win social approval because they believe the other witnesses are right
59
Q

Describe the procedure of Gabbert et al’s experiment on ‘post-event discussion’.

A
  1. Paired pps watched video of same crime, but filmed so each pp could see elements in event that the other could not
  2. Both pps discussed what they had seen on video before individually completing a test of recall
60
Q

Describe the findings/conclusion of Gabbert et al’s experiment on ‘post-event discussion’.

A

Findings: 71% pps mistakenly recalled aspects of film that they didn’t see in video but picked up in ‘post-event discussion’

Conclusion: In a control group, where there was no discussion, there were no errors

61
Q

Evaluate research into misleading info

A

Strengths
- Real life applications: Strong influence of leading questions means that police need to be careful about how they phrase questions

Limitations

  • Artificial materials: Pps watched FILMS of accidents, and didn’t witness one directly. Other researchers found that pps had very accurate recalls after witnessing real accidents. Artificial tasks tell us little about how leading questions affect EWT in real crimes
  • Individual differences: Older ppl are usually less accurate in recalling events than younger people
  • Demand Characteristics: Pps may want to seem helpful/attentive and answer a question even if they dont know the answer. This affects validity of study
  • Lacks external validity: EWT accuracy may be greater in real world. Eyewitnesses will search memory with greater effort since testimony may lead to conviction
62
Q

Define anxiety

A

It is a state of emotional and physical arousal where are person may experience worried thoughts and feelings, an increased heart rate and sweatiness
- It can affect the accuracy and detail of eyewitness testimonies

63
Q

What are 2 factors that can affect eyewitness testimonies?

A
  1. Misleading info e.g. leading questions/post-event discussion
  2. anxiety
64
Q

Describe the procedure of a study that shows that anxiety has a NEGATIVE effect on recall

A

Johnson and Scott (1976)

  1. Pps sat in waiting room, believing they would take part in a lab study
  2. Each pp heard an argument in next room and 2 conditons took place
    - Low-anxiety condition: Man walked in room carrying a pen and grease on his hands
    - High-anxiety condition: Argument accompanied by breaking glass and man walks in with paper knife covered in blood
  3. Pps asked to pick man from set of 50 photos
65
Q

Describe the findings and conclusion of Johnson and Scotts study

A

Findings: 49% of pps in low-anxiety condition could identify man, whilst only 33% from high-anxiety condition could identify him

Conclusion: Witness attention is on weapon (weapon focus) since its the source of danger and anxiety (tunnel theory of memory)
- Anxiety can have a negative effect on recall

66
Q

Describe the procedure of a study that shows that anxiety has a positive effect on recall

A

Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

  1. In real life crime, gun shop owner shoots thief dead and 13 witnesses agree to take part in study
  2. Pps were interviewed 4-5 months after incident and accs compared to police interviews at time of shooting
  3. Witnesses rated how stressed they felt at time of incident
67
Q

What were the findings and conclusion of Yuille and Cutshalls study?

A

Findings: Witnesses were very accurate and there was little change after 5 months. Some details e.g. colour of items, were less accurate though
- Pps who reported highest level of stress were most accurate (about 88% compared to 75% of less-stressed grp)

Conclusion: Anxiety can have a positive effect on recall

68
Q

What did Yerkes and Dodson propose?

A

The inverted U-theory = The relationship between recall performance and anxiety level is curvilinear, rather than linear

69
Q

Explain Yerkes and Dodsons law

A

Recall accuracy will increase with anxiety to an optimum point but there will be a drastic decline in accuracy when an eyewitness experiences more anxiety than the optimum point

70
Q

Evaluate research on the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimonies

A

Limitation

  • Low internal validity: weapon focus may have been due to pps being surprised at being presented with unusual items (Pickel 1998 using raw chicken and handgun)
  • extraneous variables: witnesses may have been influenced by time between event and interview (e.g. reading accs in media). These variables may affect accuracy, not anxiety
  • Ethical issues: Johnson and Scott caused distress (psychological harm) in pps
  • Inverted U explanation is too simplistic: Anxiety is difficult to measure since it has many elements - cognitive,behavioural, emotional and physical
  • Demand characteristics: Pps may give answers that they believe would be helpful to the experimenter so research is low in validity

Strengths
- Real life studies: These types of studies arent unethical as the situation doesnt need to be created

71
Q

What were the basic foundations of the cognitive interview?

A
  1. Fisher and Geiselman claimed that EWT could be improved if police use techniques based on psychological insights into how memory works (cognitive psychology)
    - Rapport is established with interviewer
72
Q

What are the 4 steps of a cognitive interview?

A
  1. Report everything
  2. Reinstate the context
  3. Reverse the order
  4. Change the perspective
73
Q

What does the 1st step of a cognitive interview consist of?

A

Witnesses encouraged to include every detail of an event, even if it seems irrelevant (as trivial details could be important and may trigger other memories )

74
Q

What does the 2nd step of a cognitive interview consist of?

A

Witness returns to original crime scene ‘in their mind’ and imagines environment/their emotions as cues from the context may trigger recall (context-dependant forgetting)

75
Q

What does the 3rd step of a cognitive interview consist of?

A

Events recalled in different chronological order to prevent:
1- people using expectations of how the event must have happened rather than the actual events
2- It also prevents dishonestly (harder to produc untruthful account if it has to be reversed)

76
Q

What does the 4th step of a cognitive interview consist of?

A

Witnesses recall incident from other perspective to prevent influence of expectations and schema on recall.

77
Q

What is the enhanced cognitive interview? (ECL)

A

Fisher et al developed additional elements of the CI.It includes:
1- A focus on the social dynamics of the interaction e.g. knowing when to establish and relinquish eye contact)
2-ideas such as reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly and ask open-ended questions

78
Q

Evaluate the usefulness of the cognitive interview

A

Strengths

  • Some elements of the full CI are useful: Milne and bull found that using ALL techniques produced best recall
  • Support for effectiveness of ECI: in meta-analysis, combining data from 50 studies, Kohnken et al found that ECI provided more accurate info than standard interview used by police

Limitation

  • Time consuming: More time needed to establish rapport and researchers point out that many forces have not been given enough hours of special training
  • Unreliable because of variations in CL: Different researchers use variations on CL or ECL, so its difficult to draw conclusions about its effectiveness
  • Produce increase in inaccurate info: Kohnken found that, along with an 81% increase in accurate info, there was a 61% increase in inaccurate info, with ECI.

AS Psychology (7 decks)

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