Research Methods Flashcards
What are ethics?
Ethics are moral guidelines used by psychologists studying human behaviour to protect their participants
Who provided the ethical guidelines?
The British Psychological Society (BPS)
What does the ‘Deception’ part of DCCOWPAD state?
Participants shouldn’t have information withheld from them
What does the ‘Consent’ part of DCCOWPAD state?
Permission of participant should always be given
What does the ‘Confidentiality’ part of DCCOWPAD state?
Participants’ data shouldn’t be shared
What does the ‘Observation’ part of DCCOWPAD state?
Participants should only be observed covertly, in a public place
What does the ‘Withdrawal’ part of DCCOWPAD state?
Participants should be allowed to drop out at any time
What does the ‘Protection’ part of DCCOWPAD state?
Participants should be protected from psychological and physical harm
What does the ‘Advice’ part of DCCOWPAD state?
Participants should be offered advice if needed
What does the ‘Debrief’ part of DCCOWPAD state?
Participants should always have a debrief after the study has taken place to let them know the full research aim
Which areas of DCCOWPAD come under ‘Respect’?
Consent
Withdrawal
Confidentiality
Which area of DCCOWPAD comes under ‘Competence’?
Advice
Which areas of DCCOWPAD come under ‘Responsibility’?
Protection
Debrief
Which areas of DCCOWPAD come under ‘Integrity’?
Deception
Observation
What are the 4 categories of DCCOWPAD?
Respect
Competence
Responsibility
Integrity
What is a sample?
The group of people you’re studying
What is sampling?
How you recruit participants for a study
What is Random Sampling?
When the target population has an equal chance of being chosen
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Random Sampling?
Strengths: Unbiased
Weaknesses: Time consuming,
Some people might not want to participate
What is Target Population?
The group of people you’re investigating
What is Snowball Sampling?
When participants recruit other participants for a study
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Snowball Sampling?
Strengths: Can find people with rare characteristics
Weaknesses: Time consuming,
Biased,
Have to use another method of sampling to find the first participant
What is Opportunity Sampling?
Selecting people who are readily available at the time
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Opportunity Sampling?
Strengths: Quick,
Cheap,
Convenient
Weaknesses: Usually biased,
Unrepresentative
What is Self-selecting (Volunteer) Sampling?
When participants volunteer themselves to participate
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Self-selecting (Volunteer) Sampling?
Strengths: Participants are willing (less likely to drop out)
Weaknesses: Time consuming,
May have biased sample
What is Ethnocentrism?
When a sample is taken from one culture/area
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Ethnocentrism?
Strengths: Easier to recruit participants
Weaknesses: Limited to generalising data
What is the opposite of Ethnocentrism?
Culturally representative
What is a Structured Observation?
When researchers know what they want to research and therefore create a structure (checklist)
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a Structured Observation?
Strengths: More scientific,
More reliable,
All data is relevant
Weaknesses: Can only record behaviours that are on your checklist
What is an unstructured Observation?
When the researcher records all behaviours they witness (don’t have a checklist)
What are the strengths and weaknesses of an unstructured Observation?
Strengths: More detail
Weaknesses: Missing behaviour (too much to write down)
What is a Naturalistic Observation?
Observations in a natural environment
The researcher doesn’t interfere
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a Naturalistic Observation?
Strengths: Normal behaviour (high ecological validity)
Weaknesses: Very little control (anything can happen)
What is a Controlled Observation?
When the observation situation is staged
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a Controlled Observation?
Strengths: Won’t get things interfering with the observation (more accurate)
Weaknesses: High amount of control causes situations to feel artificial (might not get real behaviour)
What is a Participant Observation?
When the researcher becomes part of the group being observed and takes an active role in the observation
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a Participant Observation?
Strengths: Provides in-depth knowledge (good vantage point),
Avoids researcher bias,
Greater insight
Weaknesses: Researcher joining group may alter behaviour,
Easy to become emotionally involved
What is a Non-Participant Observation?
When the researcher is not part of the group being observed and does not take an active role
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a Non-Participant Observation?
Strengths: Can remain more objective
Weaknesses: Distance means you might not see everything
What is a Covert Observation?
When the researcher observes participants in secret
Participants are not aware that they’re being observed
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a Covert Observation?
Strengths: More likely to get natural behaviour
Weaknesses: Less ethical
What is an Overt Observation?
The researcher informs participants that they’re being observed
What are the strengths and weaknesses of an Overt Observation?
Strengths: More ethical
Weaknesses: Might not get natural behaviour
What are Behavioural Categories?
Clearly defined behaviours that can be observed and recorded
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Behavioural Categories?
Strengths: Easier to record the same behaviours,
Higher inter-rater reliability
Weaknesses: Time consuming
What are Coding Frames?
Sub-categories among Behavioural Categories (in coded form) to allow for more specific behaviours to be recorded
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Coding Frames?
Strengths: More precise
Weaknesses: Time consuming
What is Time Sampling?
When researchers record data within specified time intervals
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Time Sampling?
Strengths: Researchers may stay more focused,
Weaknesses: Miss behaviours that could occur when you’re not recording
What is Event Sampling
When researchers record every occurrence of behaviours within a specified period of time
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Event Sampling?
Strengths: Allows you to record all behaviours
Weaknesses: Time consuming
What is Inter-rater Reliability?
The extent to which researchers- observing the same behaviour, in the same way- agree on the results
What are Observer Effects?
Participants may change their behaviour if they know they’re being observed
What is Observer Bias?
A tendency for the researcher to see what they’d expect to see
What are Independent Variables?
The thing the researcher changes/manipulates to see the effect it has on something else
What are Dependent Variables?
The thing the researcher measures
What are Extraneous Variables?
A factor that could influence the researcher’s results (Control Variable)
What are Confounding Variables?
A variable that the researcher cannot control (usually individual differences)
These variables will interfere with the results
What are the 3 types of Research METHODS?
Lab
Field
Quasi
Describe a Lab experiment
IV is manipulated
Controlled and artificial setting
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Lab Experiments?
Strengths: High control- less interference,
More ethical
Weaknesses: Demand Characteristics,
Lack of ecological validity
Describe a Field experiment
IV is manipulated Natural environment (realistic setting)
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Field Experiments?
Strengths: Fewer demand characteristics,
High ecological validity
Weaknesses: Low control -more interference
Less ethical
Describe a Quasi experiment
IV is naturally occurring (cannot be manipulated)
Can be in either natural or artificial environment
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Quasi Experiments?
Strengths: High ecological validity
Weaknesses: Less control (no manipulation)
What is an Independent Measures Design?
Participants complete only one condition in the experiment
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Independent Measures Designs?
Strengths: No chance of order effects,
Less chance of participants changing their behaviour
Weaknesses: Individual differences make it difficult to compare,
More participants required
What is a Repeated Measures Design?
Participants complete all conditions
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Repeated Measures Designs?
Strengths: No individual differences,
Fewer participants are needed
Weaknesses: Chance of order effects,
Higher chance of demand characteristics
What is a Matched-Pairs Design?
Participants only complete one condition but they’re matched to other participants who share a characteristic
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Matched-Pairs Designs?
Strengths: No order effects,
Can compare on participants with similar characteristics,
Less chance of demand characteristics
Weaknesses: Individual differences,
More participants needed
Which hypothesis states that there WILL be a significant difference?
Alternate hypothesis
Also known as experimental hypothesis
Which hypothesis states that there WON’T be a significant difference?
Null hypothesis
What is a two-tailed hypothesis?
A hypothesis that doesn’t state the direction of the experiment
What is a one-tailed hypothesis?
A hypothesis that states the direction of the experiment
How does one write an alternative, two-tailed hypothesis?
There will be a significant difference between ________ and ________ out of ___
How does one write a null hypothesis?
There will be no significant difference between ________ and ________ out of ___
What is a Questionnaire?
Written form of a self-report
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a questionnaire?
Strengths:
Have the ability to reach a large number of participants
Often encourages honest answers
Weaknesses:
Low response rates
Cannot be changed at time- less flexible
Cannot gain non-verbal information
What is a structured interview?
Verbal form of a self-report that has a schedule (pre-prepared questions)
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a structured interview?
Strengths: All questions are relevant Easy to compare people's answers Easy to replicate Less open to bias
Weaknesses:
Can feel too formal
Participants might not be honest
Less depth
What is an unstructured interview?
Verbal form of a self-report that DOESN’T has a schedule (researcher creates questions during the interview)
What are the strengths and weaknesses of an unstructured interview?
Strengths:
Interview feels less formal- participants more likely to open up
Weaknesses: More open to bias Hard to compare people's answers Hard to replicate Researcher could go off topic
What are closed questions?
Questions that have forced choice answers
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a semi-structured interview?
Strengths:
Interview feels less formal- participants more likely to open up
Relevant answers and some interesting ones
Weaknesses:
Can be time-consuming
Can be biased
What is a semantic differential rating scale?
Measures a person’s attitude towards something by putting something on a scale between two adjectives
What are the strengths and weaknesses of open questions?
Strengths:
Answers more accurately show participants feelings
Weaknesses:
Very hard to analyse and compare
Some answers may be irrelevant
What are the strengths and weaknesses of closed questions?
Strengths:
Easy to analyse and compare
All answers are relevant
Weaknesses:
No depth in answers
Might not reflect participants true feelings- forced answers
What are the strengths and weaknesses of rating scales?
Strengths:
Allows you to see the strength of the opinion
Easy to analyse
Weaknesses:
Open to response bias
Less meaning
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a semantic differential rating scale?
Strength:
Gives the scale more meaning
Easy to analyse
Weaknesses:
Open to response bias
Less detailed- doesn’t give a specific number
What is a Likert scale?
Allows participants to indicate how much they agree or disagree with a statement
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a Likert scale?
Strengths:
Allows you to see the strength of the opinion
Easy to analyse
Weaknesses:
Open to response bias
Less detailed- doesn’t give a specific number
What is Response Bias?
Participants just selecting the middle option
What is Social Desirability Bias?
Participants changing their answers to make themselves look more socially desirable
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a Likert scale?
Strengths:
Allows you to see the strength of the opinion
Easy to analyse
Weaknesses:
Open to response bias
Less detailed- doesn’t give a specific number
What is Quantitative data?
Data in the form of numbers
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Quantitative data?
Strengths:
Easy to analyse and make comparisons
Can repeat to test for reliability
Weaknesses:
Doesn’t give context
What is Qualitative data
Data in the form of words
What is Primary data?
First-hand data
The researcher collects the data themselves
What is Secondary data?
Second-hand data
The researcher makes use of data collected by someone else
What are the strengths and weaknesses or Qualitative data?
Strengths:
Depth, detail and insight
Have reasons behind results
Weaknesses:
Can be hard to analyse
Difficult to make comparisons
Hard to replicate
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Primary data?
Strengths:
Data will fit the needs of the experiment
Weaknesses:
Can take a lot of time to collect
Will cost more for the researcher
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Secondary data?
Strengths:
Saves time and money
Less open to bias
Weaknesses:
Data retrieved may not be appropriate for the study
Researcher could misunderstand data
What is the general definition of validity?
Whether a test is measuring what it claims to measure
What is Internal Validity?
How the study was done
How behaviour was defined and measured by the study
What is Face Validity?
Whether the study appears to measure what it should be
What is Construct Validity?
How well a test or tool measures the constructs that it was designed to measure
What is Concurrent Validity?
When a test correlates well with a measure that has been previously validated
What is Criterion Validity?
The extent to which a measure can predict a future behaviour or attitude
What is External Validity?
The extent to which you can apply the results to real life
What is Population Validity?
Whether the results from the study apply to people outside the study
What is Ecological Validity?
Whether the study reflects real life
What are the 8 Threats to Validity?
Ecological Validity Demand Characteristics Social Desirability Bias Response Bias Order Effects Individual Differences Observer Bias Weak Sample
What is the general definition of Reliability?
Whether the measure is consistent with how much it is measuring
(the controls put in place to standardise procedure)
What is Internal Reliability?
How consistent a study is within itself
What is Inter-rater Reliability?
Where two or more observers observe the same behaviour at the same time using a behaviour checklist
(observations only)
What is the Split-half Method?
A test/questionnaire/interview questions are split in half and the scores for each half of the test are compared wit hone another
(test for reliability)
What is External Reliability?
The extent to which a measure varies from one use to another
What is the Test re-test?
Measure whether a psychological measure is consistent from one testing occasion to the next
What are the Measures of Central Tendency?
Mean
Median
Mode
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the Mean?
Strengths:
Uses all of the data
Weaknesses:
There can be extreme (anomalous) values
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the Median?
Strengths:
More useful for measuring the average when there are extreme values
Weaknesses:
Not all data is used
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the Mode?
Strengths:
Useful when there are categories of behaviour
Useful to see a pattern in the data
Weaknesses:
Not all data used
WHat must one always include when drawing a graph?
Title
Labelled (and operationalised) axis
Plotted points
What must one always include when drawing a graph?
Title
Labelled (and operationalised) axis
Plotted points
What must one always include in a 12 mark question?
Definition of key term
How you would use the key term in the context of the scenario
A strength of the key term
Your own experience (another strength/an elaboration on the previous strength)
