Research methods

Question 1

Positivism; key facts about their research?

Answer 1

• identify patterns and trends in data
• make comparisons of data over time
• finding correlations to identify cause and effect relationships between variables
• value free and objective research
• quantitative data collection (numerical data is favoured)
• operationalise key variables and concepts
• experiments (laboratory and field) are repeatable and therefore results can be checked and verified
• Durkheim follows the Positivist approach

Question 2

Positivism; disadvantages?

Answer 2

• social reality cannot be studied in the same way as the natural world (natural sciences) because in the social world people interpret situations in different ways.
• they ignore human free will and rely on laboratory experiments as a research method
• ignore the subjective experience of individuals focusing on objective approach (ignore interpretations and meanings that people place on their actions)
• statistical data lacks verstehen (depth, meaning and reasoning)

Question 3

Interpretivism; key facts

Answer 3

• qualitative data that’s rich, detailed, high quality and descriptive that shows meanings and motives
• reject positivism and natural sciences because we’re dealing with humans in sociology and so meaning is attached to how they act
• important to gain a rapport with the people being researched as this increases validity
• gives us good verstehen (empathetic understanding)
• aim to be reflective to examine if the participants’ behaviour changes during research
• participant observation, unstructured interviews and personal documents etc

Question 4

Interpretivism; disadvantages?

Answer 4

• usually focuses on small samples and they might not be representative of a wider group or population in general.
• difficult to replicate because much of the research is the product of the unique rapport that the researcher has built up with members of the group. Another sociologist would produce a different set of data therefore reliability cannot be guaranteed (unreliable)
• research may be biased because it’s not value free

Question 5

10 Main stages of the research process (area of interest to conclusion)

Answer 5

1. Area of interest (choice of topic)
2. Background research (helps to formulate your research question)
3. Hypothesis
4. Choice of research method (qualitative or quantitative)
5. Detailed planning of your research (eg operationalise key concepts)
6. Pilot study (testing out questions)
7. Revise your methods if necessary (are they valid and reliable?)
8. Carry out the research
9. Analyse the results
10. Conclusions

Question 6

Define validity?

Answer 6

Whether the research findings give a true picture of what is being studied

Question 7

Define reliability?

Answer 7

A reliable measure would produce the same results on different occasions

Question 8

Define representativeness?

Answer 8

The people who take part in the research should have characteristics that are typical of the wider population being studied. They should come from the same or similar socioeconomic backgrounds and reflect the same ratio of gender, age and ethnicity.

Question 9

Define generalisability?

Answer 9

Means that the sociologist can safely conclude that what is true of the sample that was was actually studied is probably true of the wider population to which the sample belongs.

Question 10

What’s a longitudinal study?

Answer 10

It’s carried out over a period of weeks/months/years in order to study changes or developments over an extended period of time, it can also be used to identify casual relationships and correlations between variables eg health and class

• the sample must be carefully considered, should remain relatively large and should aim to prevent participants from dropping out
• how will it be funded
• ethical issues need to be considered

Question 11

Longitudinal Studies; What’s a panel study?

Answer 11

The data is collected from a sample selected from sampling frames such as the postcode address file. The sample unit may be individuals, households or organisations.

Question 12

Longitudinal Studies; What’s a cohort study?

Answer 12

They aim to study people who have the same social characteristics eg age. A whole group of people might be studied eg a class at school or a sample or the class might be studied.

Question 13

Longitudinal Studies; methods?

Answer 13

Interviews
Observations
Ethnography

Question 14

Longitudinal Studies; Advantages? Disadvantages?

Answer 14

• identify trends and patterns and correlations over time
• verstehen
• good rapport with the participants, more comfortable and open, results might be more valid
• can be expensive
• time consuming
• respondents may drop out which results in a smaller sample and this might not be representative of the population / group
• relationships built may mean the results are not reliable because they’re biased

Question 15

Primary data ?

Answer 15

Eg Interviews, Observations, Questionnaires
Which enable new data collection that did not exist before the research began

Positivism - use quantitative methods eg a questionnaire or interview with a scaling system. Quantitative data eg stats/facts/figures are More reliable but less valid because they lack depth.

Interpretivism - qualitative methods eg unstructured interviews and observations. More valid because it shows meanings and motives but less reliable because replication of the same data/results might not be possible

Question 16

Choosing a primary data research method?

Answer 16

• reliable = same/similar results produced by repeating method
• valid research = provides a true picture of what’s being studied or measured
• practicality;
  Quantitative > qualitative because it’s more practical and less time consuming and allow you to study a large sample of people

Question 17

Primary data; lab experiments?

Answer 17

Experiments conducted in a lab tend to use scientific equipment to measure the variables and concepts.

Advantages = variables can be controlled and experiments tend to have high control. Reliable as used in natural sciences. BUT the settings are generally artificial and we can’t study humans using that, it doesn’t give a true representation (less validity).

Question 18

Primary data; field experiments?

Answer 18

Conducted in a natural setting/situation eg a classroom. Behaviour can be studied with some form of control.

BUT less control = results can be inaccurate. Hawthorne effect, people can change their behaviour because they’re being studied so giving inaccurate results,

Question 19

Primary data; case studies?

Answer 19

These examine one particular case or instance eg a life history of an individual.

Advantages - Can be used to prove or disprove a hypothesis. Give new info or insight into a topic. Can become a pilot study.
BUT can be limited, unrepresentative of the general population.

Question 20

Secondary data key points?

Answer 20

Official statistics is the best example. Form of secondary data which collects data in a quantitative manner that would be favoured by Positivist sociologists but rejected by interpretivists.

Question 21

Secondary data; Official statistics key points?

Answer 21

The best source come from the census which is undertaken every 10 years by every household in the UK.
But can also be collected from
- registration
- official surveys (ONS responsible for all UK stats)

They tend to be reliable but not very valid
Governments may however manipulate statistics to their advantage which is called political bias therefore reporting them in a way making them not very valid. Eg governments might hide some data, released when there’s other news in the media dominating BUT if this is the only data available then sociologists have the rely on this

Question 22

Secondary data; Advantages of official statistics?

Answer 22

• well planned, organised, detailed, official statistics should be quite reliable.
• representative samples are used to collect official statistics and these samples are very large (much larger than the sociologist could conduct alone due to lack of funding) eg census = whole of uk
• some research is conducted regularly and therefore has high temporal validity because the research is up to date and current
• published stats are usually readily available for everyone to access and use and they cost nothing or little to access eg through the internet
• patterns and trends of data are usually very easy to identify and recognise and this can be very useful when analysing large amounts of official statistics

Question 23

Secondary data; Disadvantages of official statistics?

Answer 23

might not be fit for purpose if they’re not measuring what they intend to do eg annual crime stats by the home office don’t provide an accurate representation of crime due to unreported and unrecorded crime not part of this.

The government compiles and collects official stats so they might be biased in their political outlook and therefore not neutral.

Not very valid as The figures do not express reasons for trends/patterns and they lack meaning. Everything is reduced to a number and means that official statistics can be low in validity.

Question 24

Secondary data ; non official stats?

Answer 24

Stats collected by independent companies, researches or academic institutions. QUANTITATIVE

+
Objective quantitative data
Quite accessible

-
Can’t guarantee reliability
Can be expensive

Question 25

Secondary data; family histories?

Answer 25

Recorded histories left by those who have experienced past events. Eg sound recordings, film or old photographs which can provide insight into the past. QUALITATIVE

+
Rich and detailed
Better insight into culture, value and norms

-
Difficult to compare
May be biased to make that family look good etc
Time consuming to analyse

Question 26

Secondary data; previous sociological research ?

Answer 26

We can examine the new research topic, aim and results and then decide if we would like to replicate the study or extend the research topic further into a new area.

QUALITATIVE / QUANTITATIVE
+
Saves time and money
Gives more data and allows for comparisons

-
Might be biased
Could be out dated
Could be inaccurate

Question 27

Assessing secondary sources

Answer 27

Authenticity - how genuine the documents are.

Authorship - who wrote the document

Credibility - amount of distortion

Availability - some documents aren’t available

Question 28

Define operationalise

Answer 28

Define a key word or variable and state exactly how we’re going to measure them

Preferred by Positivists

To aid reliability (enable replication by other researchers
who can use the same operationalisation)

To aid objectivity

To aid validity (measuring what you are setting out to
measure)

Eg educational disadvantage can be operationalised by using proportion of students on free school meals

Question 29

What are social problems?

Answer 29

Aspects of social life that cause misery and anxiety to both private individuals and society in general. Eg crime, child abuse, domestic violence and suicide.

Question 30

What are sociological problems?

Answer 30

A successful society involves a number of social institutions effectively carrying out a range of social processes and functions. Sociologists are interested in how societies and social institutions work and how individuals interact and interpret one another’s behaviour. So any aspect of social life normal or deviant is a sociological problem. Eg sociologists are interested as to why divorce is a sociological problem because it can have negative effects for individuals and society but equally marriage is a sociological problem because why is it important and what makes it good or bad etc. Overall research is to increase knowledge of how society works and why people behave the way they do.

Question 31

Social Policy

Answer 31

Laws and Regulations

Eg as of April 2019 in Scotland domestic abuse also includes psychological abuse

Question 32

What’s the relationships between social problems / sociological problem and social policy?

Answer 32

1. Some sociological research simply aims to be descriptive. It’s purpose is to describe a particular situation that or set facts.
2. Some sociological research is explanatory. It sets out to explain a particular social phenomenon such as poverty.
3. Some sociological research is evaluative. It sets out to monitor and assess the effect of a social policy.

Question 33

Practical factors that affect choice of sampling process?

Answer 33

Cost

• how much funding the research has managed to secure.
• generous = large interviewing team /national survey
• not much = cheaper options eg postal questionnaires or secondary sources (cheap and reliable sources of data)

Time available

• dependent on funding eg lots = longitudinal study possible
• lacks time = a small scale study and maybe even secondary rather than carrying out first hand research

Subject matter
- how comfortable people are to discuss the topic eg sensitive areas = people might not want to participate so maybe anonymous questionnaires might be better

Question 34

Theoretical factors that affect the choice of sampling process?

Answer 34

Influenced by positivism / interpretivism approach

Question 35

Respondent validation and interpretation of data

Answer 35

The sociologists interpretation of an event or data is checked with those who took part in the event. Feedback is obtained from the participants about the accuracy of the data and about whether the researcher has fairly interpreted their behaviour.

Mainly used for interpretivist research

It’s to reduce the possibility that the researcher applies their interpretation to the data BIAS

Question 36

Define sampling unit and sampling frame?

Answer 36

These are members of the population that you wish to study see in terms of number and characteristics eg; 40 male dentists. Some sample units might be difficult to obtain.

Once the research population has been identified eg mothers aged 20-30 in the UK; a sampling frame is used which consists of a list of members from the population that you wish to study. The source for this could be the electoral roll, telephone directories etc.

Question 37

Gate Keeper?

Answer 37

Controls the access to the sample. Sometimes it’s easier than others.
Eg a school = headteacher
Eg a gang = Gang leader (more difficult to find)

Question 38

Sampling process?

Answer 38

Precised definition eg focusing on the poor, what characteristics defines someone as poor

Find access to the research or target population

Sample has to be chosen. This has to be a representative sample in order to ensure generalisability (generalise that the findings apply to the wider research population)

Question 39

Random sampling?

Answer 39

Every member of the sampling frame has an equal chance of selection eg picking names out of a hat

+ limits bias within the selection process as samples are chosen by chance

• the sample might end up being non representative of the population eg only males are selected

Question 40

Systematic sampling?

Answer 40

Randomly choosing a number between one and ten eg 7, and then picking out every tenth number from that number eg 7,17,27 etc until you reach the required number eg 30.

+ limits bias within the selection process as samples are chosen by chance

• the sample might end up being non representative of the population eg only males are selected

Question 41

Stratified sample?

Answer 41

Dividing the research population into a number of different strata in terms of characteristics. A sample is then selected that reflects these characteristics eg 51% female and 49% male.

+ it will be representative (even proportionally) of the research population.

• it’s time consuming to select the sample and you need a complete list of the population which might be difficult to obtain.

Question 42

Snowball sampling?

Answer 42

Someone willing to participate in the research is found eg gang member. The participant therefore is then asked to find another person to take part. A network is built up and the sample grows.

+ gives access to a group of people where there’s no sampling frame available or they engage in deviant / illegal activities, normally carried out in isolation or secret. And this sample can grow as large as the researcher wanted.

• people taking part might not be representative of the research population and the researcher has little control over the sampling method.

Question 43

Volunteer sampling?

Answer 43

Researchers try to attract volunteers by using leaflets and posters etc. People can read the information and can decide whether or not they want to volunteer their time.

+
Minimal time/effort is required because the sample comes to you. And those who volunteer themselves are more willing and therefore provide more insightful data

-
People who take part might not be representative of the population and you might not even get a large enough amount of people to conduct the research ie low participation rates

Question 44

Opportunity (convenience) sampling?

Answer 44

Selecting the participants in situations / opportunities where the research population is likely to be found. Sociologists might have easy access to this group and have contact with them. Therefore it’s convenient to ask them and taking whatever you can get.

+
It’s convenient and easy to find participants and build a good rapport with them

-
Can lead to an under representation or over representation of certain groups within the sample and it’s not ideal because your limited to an opportunity that might not respond as well as you’d hoped it too

Question 45

Purposive data sampling

Answer 45

Used by researchers who know what they’re looking for and go and find that specific sample. Eg; wishing to find 25-50 year old doctors so going directly to hospitals.

+
Easy to directly find participants fitting of the criteria and prevents irrelevant people from being part of this sample.

-
Prone to researcher bias and because they’re chosen from the same place (eg doctors from one hospital), it might not be representative of the whole research population

Question 46

Quota sampling ?

Answer 46

Researcher looks for the right number of people until the quota is filled eg; finding 20 females who work full time aged between 30-45. The researcher uses the first 20 ladies who match the criteria and agree to participate.

+
Prevents irrelevant people from being part of the sample. And not dependent on a sampling frame.

-
Danger of use researchers only question those who look “suitable” and “co-operative”. So it’s difficult to say whether a sample is truly representative of the research population.

Question 47

What are Pilot studies?

Answer 47

A pilot study is a small scale preliminary study that sociologists might conduct before they do their main research. It’s like a test run using a small sample of participants and is used to see whether the research will actually work. It can be used to decide whether the study is valid, whether any changes need to be made in the design etc. They’re commonly used when the research involves the collection of quantitative data.

Question 48

Evaluation of pilot studies?

Answer 48

+
Problems and issues can be rectified

You can evaluate the practicalities eg timings and method and whether the questions were understood

You can find out if the study’s worthwhile and practical and is the data produced the kind that was wanted.

-
Time consuming

Expensive

Cannot use the same participants for pilot and main study so you have to find two samples.

Question 49

Ethics?

Answer 49

It’s important that sociologists follow the guidelines provided by the British Sociological Association BSA. Sociologists should try to follow these guidelines at all times.

However BULMER argued that sometimes the researcher will have to compromise and make sacrifices in order to protect themselves and the participants in research.

Question 50

Principles of ethical research by Bulmer?

Answer 50

Informed consent (choice whether to participate and full info of the study)

Respect for privacy (shouldn’t invade privacy or make them feel uncomfortable)

Protection from harm (no harm physically, socially, psychologically)

Safeguarding the confidentiality of data (anonymous)

Avoid deception (deceit and lies should be avoided however if it’s necessary as it compromises the validity of data then debriefing is required after)

Awareness of the consequences of publication (participants aware)

Right to withdraw (they can refuse whenever and don’t need a reason to)

Question 51

Ethical issues in quantitative research ?

Answer 51

Before the research begins, participants need to be informed about the nature and purpose of the study, how their data will be used, how anonymity will be respected and the confidentiality of their answers

It’s important to build a rapport with the participant before an interview takes place. This will ensure that the participant feels confident that they can refuse to answer any questions that they find uncomfortable. Sometimes questions that appear neutral can still cause upset, so be aware of this.

Large scale questionnaires generate huge amounts of data which must be kept secure in line with the data protection act. Many questionnaires do not require the participant to give their name, address or date of birth (which ensures confidentiality)

Question 52

Ethical issues in qualitative research?

Answer 52

Sometimes it might not be possible to gain fully informed consent from a person who is being observed but there’s ways around this eg asking them after the observation.

Eg covert research like Glasgow gangs by James Patrick. They’re breaking the ethical guidelines as no fully informed consent gained, the participants are being deceived and privacy is invaded.

But it’s justifiable because you need deception otherwise demand characteristics will show (hawthorne effect) and u won’t get valid results. But also in order to study sensitive topics eg gangs.

Question 53

Questionnaires?

Answer 53

• Mainly used to collect quantitative data especially if closed questions are asked and this is favoured by positivist sociologists. - consist of questions compiled by researchers that are then distributed and need to be self completed by participants (usually not in the prescience of the researcher)
• are suitable when the research topic requires numerical answers but not so suitable for studying sensitive topics eg domestic violence.
• should reach a suitable sample of respondents and should produce a high return rate in order to gain valid results

Question 54

Constructing a questionnaire?

Answer 54

A poorly designed questionnaire could make the results invalid and inaccurate so it’s important to spend time and effort on careful construction.

• clear and should be the same for all participants (increases reliability)
• should be worded clearly so it’s understood the same (increases validity)
• where and when to return the questionnaire needs to be stated
• purpose should be explained
• confidentiality should be ensured
• shouldn’t be too long or short
• questions should be biased (not leading or biased)
• shouldn’t be offensive
• open require free response - enough space
• closed require yes/no or tick boxes and consider the bands don’t overlap

Question 55

Structured questionnaires facts?

Answer 55

Consists of closed questions that require fixed answers

Favoured by positivist sociologists where respondents can answer the questionnaire quickly by ticking boxes or selecting answers etc

Data will consist of figures,percentages,statistics (quantitative data)

It’s easy to analyse

Questions usually consist of key variables that must be operationalised eg key variables are defined and measured

Reliable because if handed out again you’d get the same results

However interpretivists would criticise and say its low validity because real life is too complex to categorise Via closed questions and fixed responses.

Question 56

Closed questions should follow 3 main principles?

Answer 56

1. Exhaustiveness
   Categorises should account for every possible response, and to cover this issue sometimes the categories of other or none of the above are used.
2. Exclusiveness
   Respondents should be able to select only one response from the ones available in order to make analysis of results easier (band categories)
3. Balancing
   When respondents need to place attitudes on a scale, there should be equal amounts of positive and negative categories in order not to distort answers.

Question 57

Unstructured questionnaires facts

Answer 57

Consists of mainly open questions that require respondents to answer the questions themselves in their own words

Favoured by interpretivist sociologists where high quality answers are given that might be in depth - looks at themes, meaning and motives

Data will be in depth and high quality (qualitative)

Data can be difficult to analyse because each participant might have given very different answers and different length answers too. There might be little similarity of themes / content in the answers given

The questions can consist of key variables that must be operationalised

Question 58

Semi structured questionnaire facts?

Answer 58

Open and closed questions
Favoured by realist sociologists
Quantitative and qualitative data is collected

Variations of this type eg;

• a self report = lists a number of items or activities and asks respondents to tick those they have experienced
• attitudinal questionnaires = ask respondents on a scale of 1-5 whether they subscribe to a particular point of view

Question 59

Different types of questionnaires?

Answer 59

Self completion by post;
- include a covering letter explaining the aim and purpose and give a stamped addressed envelope so it can be easily returned.

Internet based surveys
- sending respondents to a direct website where they can fill it in eg survey monkey

Hand delivered
- researcher delivers it by hand to the designated company/person/household

Face to face on the street
- stopping people on the street and getting them to fill it out straight away

Question 60

Advantages of questionnaires?

Answer 60

1. Can reach a large and consequently a more representative sample as it can easily be handed out or posted to lots of people.
2. If anonymous, they’re useful for research that intends to ask embarrassing or sensitive questions such as sexual behaviour.
3. Researcher has minimum contact with the respondent so they can’t directly influence the results by being present (Hawthorne effect)
4. Positivists believe that if the questions are neutral and objective then another researcher should be able to repeat and get similar results therefore it’s high in reliability.
5. Postal questionnaires can be used especially if the research population is geographically dispersed across the country or if results are required from different regions for comparitave purposes.

Question 61

Disadvantages of questionnaires?

Answer 61

1. Many people cannot be bothered to reply especially postal ones, therefore you can suffer from low response rates to even no responses. Compromises level of generalisability if the sample size is smaller.
2. Interpretivists criticise them for producing data low in validity because they argue that real life is too complex to categorise in closed questions and fixed responses.
3. Interpretivists suggest that there’s a danger with respondents interpreting the question in a different way that was intended and then the researcher can’t clear up any misunderstandings therefore they’re not VALID
4. Interpretivists argue that closed questionnaires with tick box responses suffer from the imposition problem. This means that the sociologist has limited responses to measure what they think is important which might force respondents to think in the same way. Which might frustrate respondents and they may leave it incomplete
5. People may lie or misrepresent themselves to give an impression of a normal citizen eg lying about mental health.

Question 62

Structured interviews? (Positivists)

Answer 62

Researcher and the interviewee will have interaction and a rapport will be developed between them. The researcher can also note down any non verbal aspects of behaviour eg body language. They should ask questions in a clear standardised way in a good order that makes sense but also record the answers carefully while maintaining a rapport with the interviewee.

Question 63

Disadvantages of structured interviews?

Answer 63

1. The researchers characteristics eg age gender ethnicity, may have an effect on the interviewees answers which will affect the validity of the results - this is called the interviewer effect
2. Social desirability bias means that the interviewee might lie in order to portray themselves in a good light eg how much alcohol they drink which once again will affect the validity of the results.
3. Feminist sociologists would criticise structured interviews because it creates a hierarchy between a powerful researcher and an interviewee with no control. They’d prefer semi structured or unstructured because it breaks down the barriers between the two.
4. Lacks freedom so both the interviewee and interviewer cannot explore any other ideas or areas relating to the subject.
5. More costly in terms of time and resources than a postal questionnaire which can be filled out in the interviewees own time.

Question 64

Advantages of structured interviews?

Answer 64

1. They’re quick and easy to administer so a large sample size can be potentially be used.
2. Researchers can easily be trained to conduct these interviews because it’s just following a standardised set of instructions and this is usually inexpensive.
3. Positivists would prefer structured interviews because they consist of closed questions so the answers can be easily quantified as the answers are straight forward.
4. Researchers are trained to ask each question in the same way and not to get too familiar with the interviewee, this reduces interviewer bias but also ensures consistency and reliability of the data collected.

Question 65

Semi structured interviews ?

Answer 65

Many sociologist interviews are a mix of structured (closed questions to get facts) and unstructured (some open questions to get extra detail)

Question 66

Semi structured interviews advantages?

Answer 66

Open and closed questions, gain quantitative and qualitative data which is very useful (positivist and interpretivist data)

Reliability can be enhanced if questions are planned in advance so the interview can be repeated and results can be checked for consistency.

They can be quick if lots of closed questions are asked so a larger population size can be targeted and a great deal of data can be gained.

Question 67

Semi structured interviews disadvantages?

Answer 67

Validity may be limited to the few open questions used however still more than structured

But if open questions are asked then the reliability of the interview can be limited

Can be time consuming if there are many open ended questions and therefore the sample size might be smaller than that of structured interviews.

Question 68

Unstructured interviews?

Answer 68

They’re essentially guided conversations where the talk is informal but the interviewer plays an active role in order to keep to the subject of the research.

Flexible as follow up questions etc can be asked to probe responses and investigate motives and feelings in a way that structured interviews don’t allow.

Interpretivists argue that it’s ethnographic because it’s carried out in a comfortable natural setting and theyre in depth and carried out over hours rather than minutes.

Question 69

Unstructured interviews advantages?

Answer 69

Interpretivists would advocate this method because verstehen and insight can be gained from the rich and vivid data in the form of extensive quotations - data is therefore highly valid.

Good rapport can be established between the researcher and interviewee therefore they can research sensitive topics that involve empathy and trust OR the interviewee will open up more and give answers they wouldn’t put down in a questionnaire etc so the results may be extremely VALID.

It’s more flexible as the interviewer can clarify questions for the interviewee, they can ask follow up questions and are not restricted to a list of fixed questions only as they’re controlling the direction of the interview.

Question 70

Unstructured interviews disadvantages?

Answer 70

Positivists would criticise this approach because the qualitative data is hard to analyse because of the volume of material in the respondents own words, it’s impossible to quantify this and turn it into graphs etc.

Very low reliability as it cannot be recreated, much of the content is due to the rapport built between the researcher and researchee and so cannot be recreated to produce the same results.

Expensive to carry out because training needs to be more thorough and specialised and focused on interpersonal skills, but also time consuming because they take several hours to complete. Overall this means that a smaller sample might be used in comparison to structured interviewers, which means that it’s less representative of the research population as a result so it’s difficult to generalise to the wider community.

Interviewer bias and social desirability bias and interviewer effect can effect results and lower validity.

Question 71

Content analysis?

Answer 71

This is used to analyse the content of a text or source. It’s a way of quantifying data in the form of pictures or writing (quantitative data analysis). It aims to quantify content in terms of pre determined categories in a systematic and replicable manner. Content analysis has the potential to uncover hidden aspects of sources/text and bring them to the surface.

Eg fawbert studied mass media by looking at how many times the word hoodie appeared in newspapers and wanted to link this to moral panics.

Positivists favour it because it focuses on quantitative data and deals systematically with contents of documents etc.

Question 72

Content analysis stages?

Answer 72

Choose an appropriate set of texts, songs, pics
Break them down into smaller units that can be easily analysed eg a time frame / paragraph etc
Decide on the relevant categories and their headings
Analyse the units according to the categories
Count how often each category occurs
Analyse the findings in terms of frequency and any patterns

Question 73

Content analysis advantages?

Answer 73

It’s a cheap method as you only need to purchase the magazines/newspapers/watch tv etc

It’s a comparative method as it allows you to compare media reports and content over time (can be longitudinal)

It’s a reliable method because sociologists can repeat and cross check the results by looking at the same data and using the same categories etc.

Question 74

Content analysis disadvantages?

Answer 74

It’s very time consuming because media needs to be checked over a long period of time

Subjective method as the categories largely depend on what the sociologist thinks is important

Sociologists who have used this method have been accused of analysing text out of context

The Media products themselves may only tell us about the personal and political beliefs of those who produce them eg the prejudices of journalists.

Question 75

Ethnography?

Answer 75

Is the study of the way of life of a group of people, their culture and the structure of their society. Researchers aim to “walk in their shoes”. Researcher participating in or observing their daily activities. Other activities eg unstructured interviews, may be used to sketch out a fuller picture of the groups behaviour

Question 76

Ethnography Advantages?

Answer 76

Preferred by interpretivist sociologists who argue that eg unstructured interviews, allow researchers to gain full verstehen (being able to empathise with and or think like the people who are being studied)
And get access to the lived experience of particular social groups. So the closeness to the research subjects has led interpretivists to claim that ethnography produced the most valid and authentic type of qualitative data of any type of social research method.

Question 77

Disadvantages of ethnography?

Answer 77

Could be difficult to gain access to rage participants and there be ethical issues eg invasion of privacy and deception

Time consuming - it can be longitudinal and requires a lot of effort for the researcher

Question 78

Interpretivists and Observations?

Answer 78

Looking at the topic that’s being studied and recording data. Interpretivists sociologists would analyse meanings from observations which can be very subjective since the sociologist chooses what behaviour to observe and make notes on (qualitative data).

Question 79

Positivists and observations?

Answer 79

Positivist sociologists are more systematic in their approach and might observe data using charts (quantitative data). Positivists would see observations as an essential research method, especially when conducting experiments where behaviour needs to be observed. Positivists are less likely to become involved with participant observation (but would use non participant observation instead).

Question 80

Participant observation ?

Answer 80

Sociologists can join a group and observe a group of people. Sociologists can participate in their daily activities and observe what people say and do. Griffin (1960) a white journalist dyed his skin black to see what it was like to live as a black man in the southern states of the USA in the late 1950s. Interpretivists would advocate the use of participant observation.

Can be covert or overt. Type of ethnography. Most common type of overstating to ‘get inside their heads’

Question 81

Gaining entry to participant observation?

Answer 81

Participant observation can only work if the researcher gains entry into the group and can be accepted by the group members. Many groups do not want to be studied especially if they’re deviant or criminal. However it is possible to enter closed groups through a gatekeeper (particularly in overt)

Question 82

Conducting research (participant observation)?

Answer 82

Participant observation involves looking and listening and the researcher should be able to ‘go with the flow’ rather than forcing the pace and direction of the groups behaviour. The researcher should not disturb the setting as it should be as natural as possible. Blending in is very important even though it can be difficult sometimes. Sometimes listening and looking might not be enough and the researcher will have to be more active and gain information by asking questions. Informal unplanned and unstructured ways are used to obtain data and there might be a great deal of hanging around. Recording information can be problematic, many researchers write up information in the evening once they have thought about the days events. The toilet is sometimes a place where many researchers go and quickly write ups their notes once something significant has happened - this relies on memory which can be selective. Participant observation can be a long process that can take up to a year of research or more. It requires dedication, stamina and possibly a double life whereby the person is cut off from friends and family

Question 84

Covert participant observations?

Answer 84

This is when the sociologist aims to observe a person/group and the sociologist DOES NOT reveal their true identity but pretends to be an authentic member of the group. The sociologist will not tell the participants that they are really a researcher who wishes to observe their behaviour. The researchers identity remains COVERT/COVERED

Eg James Patrick and Glasgow Gangs

Question 85

Advantages of covert participant observation?

Answer 85

• uncovers what people actually do (true reflection) so the data gained is very valid as it’s more difficult for participants to lie or mislead the sociologist here
• less demand characteristics would be demonstrated by the group of people being observed. The group will not know they are being observed and therefore will be less inclined to change their behaviour and will behave more naturally (high in validity)
• can uncover a great deal of insight and fresh in depth information so verstehen is very high
• a method to successfully study some topics that otherwise could’ve been impossible. Eg criminal gangs, closed off to outsiders and would reject some people, if the researcher can gain their trust rapport and respect then the group might allow access
• can be conducted by a single researcher without them doing a great deal of preparation. This makes the costs of the research quite low.

Question 86

Disadvantages of covert participant observation?

Answer 86

Can be unethical eg lack of fully informed consent and deception

Could be difficult to take accurate notes without being seen as writing notes down could arouse suspicion and put the researcher at danger especially with a deviant group.

Moral dilemmas eg observing a gang undercover, they might want the researcher to take part in illegal activities and it would require a great deal of effort / acting ability to fit in.

Pose danger to the sociologist eg Ken Pryce was murdered whilst trying to carry out a participant observation of organised drug crime.

Question 86

Overt participant observation?

Answer 86

This is when the sociologist aims to observe a person/group and the sociologist DOES REVEAL their true identity. The sociologist will tell the participants that they are really a researcher who wishes to observe their behaviour. The sociologists true identity is OPEN and NOT COVERED to some or all of the group who are aware that the researcher is actively observing them.

Question 86

Advantages of overt participant observation?

Answer 86

Very ethical because participants would’ve given fully informed consent and deception would be minimal

The researcher can freely take notes that will be more accurate and less rushed

The researcher can freely ask lots of questions without participants becoming suspicious (gain verstehen)

Question 87

Disadvantages of overt participant observation?

Answer 87

Less valid than covert observation

Social desirability bias and demand characteristics might occur which could make the results inaccurate and biased

Lacks verstehen and true insight in to human behaviour

Time consuming as it can take months maybe years

Some observers get attached to the group so there e observations become biased. The observer becomes too sympathetic towards the group and ‘goes native’ - the observer loses detachment/objectivity and identifies too closely with the group.

Question 88

Why do Positivists criticise participant observation overall?

Answer 88

They question the reliability of the results because the success is generally due to the relationship established between the researcher and the group and is therefore hard to replicate.

Lack of representativeness, because the number of people observed is generally quite small so it’s not possible to generalise from the findings to members of similar groups.

They also say it is unsystematic, unstructured and unreliable because they focus on naturally occurring behaviour.

Question 89

Non participant or direct observation?

Answer 89

Involves the researcher sitting and observing an activity. They’re detached, objective and an unobtrusive onlooker who plays no active role in the activity being observed.

Is structured using a coded observation schedule that directs what is to be observed eg particular types of behaviour or activity. This is favoured by Positivists as they’re gaining ‘facts’ in the form of quantifiable data.

Question 90

Non participant observation advantages?

Answer 90

As the researcher is objective and detached, there’s less bias when interpreting the groups behaviour.

And as the researcher is not joining in activities, the group itself shouldn’t be influenced by the observer.

Question 91

Non participant observation disadvantages?

Answer 91

However,

The observer is likely to be observing artificial behaviour caused by their actual presence eg an oftsted inspector in a classroom will generally affect how both the teacher and students act compared to how they do generally.

It also gives little insight as to why people behave the way that they do, lacks verstehen.

Objectivity may be difficult to achieve as observers have to make value judgements about whether behaviour or activities fit particular categories on their observation scale.

Question 92

Mixed methods ?

Answer 92

Most sociologist research will mix and match methods in order to guarantee both reliability and validity; very few will focus entirely on the use of either quantitative (positivist) or qualitative (interpretivist) methods alone. There’s great flexibility, as long as the method fits the purpose of research.

There are two ways of doing this, triangulation and methodological pluralism.

Question 93

Methodological pluralism?

Answer 93

It treats all methods as equal and assesses the strengths and weaknesses of each method in terms of his if fits into the research task. It’s the Combining different research methods in order to build up a fuller picture of what is being studied as it produces a more comprehensive view of social reality and can gain new insights; primary and secondary and quantitative and qualitative.

Question 94

Triangulation by Denzin 1970?

Answer 94

Involves the use of more than one method or source of data in the study allowing findings to be cross checked. Two or more methods or data collection are used and their findings should correspond with each other and agree. Triangulation uses different methods and
theories to check findings against each other. The quality of the research should be enhanced by using both qualitative and quantifiable data and can therefore enhance reliability and validity.

Question 95

Triangulation can take different forms?

Answer 95

Data triangulation -
Collecting data at different times from different people in different places as a cross check for validity.

Investigator triangulation -
The use of different researchers, observers and interviewers to check for interviewer bias

Within method triangulation -
Variety of techniques within the same method eg different forms of a questionnaire in order to check the validity of the answers and the reliability of the method itself

Between method triangulation -
A combination of a number of research methods eg questionnaires and interviews etc. To see if the data produced by one method can be checked by comparing it with the data produced by other methods.

Question 97

Case study - pluralistic approach ?

Answer 97

Detailed and in depth examination of one particular case or instance or something using methodological pluralism. They’re useful because they look at a single thing (eg life history, organisation history, one specific event etc) from several angles using several methods. This means that the sociologist can build up a rich picture of the dynamics that underpin the actions of a particular person, situation or institution.

Question 98

Building up a rapport

Answer 98

Interpretivists would support the use of

Respondents feel more comfortable speaking the truth and opening up so give better answers which ensures validity

Sensitive topics can also be discussed eg sexual history etc.
Sociologist builds up a level of trust which isn’t possible in questionnaires for example. So u can gain verstehen

Question 99

Mixed methods evaluation?

Answer 99

+
Great flexibility, not restricted

Good to improve validity

Can improve reliability as more than 1 method can check if results are similar

-
Time consuming as opposed to one method

Can be difficult when each method produces conflicting results

Researcher needs to be very skilled to blend the data in order to answer the one question