3. How Can Crime and Deviance be Defined?

Question 1

10 marker structure

Answer 1

• summarise 3 view points
  eg MARX would be Gordon, Marx and Neo Marxist

All AO1 and AO2

Question 2

20 marker structure

Answer 2

X2 studies with evaluation and then a small conclusion

8,4,8

Question 3

40 marker structure

Answer 3

All 3 studies
With evaluation after
And a detailed theoretical evaluation

16,8,16

Question 4

Functionalist Introduction

Answer 4

Durkheim saw crime as an integral part of a healthy society. He felt that some crime and deviance will be inevitable as society will always have some who test the boundaries eg in a ‘society of saints’ - behaviour like burping and sneezing could become criminalised. Therefore in society too much can lead to a state of anomie but too little is unhealthy and so a certain amount of crime and deviance is functional as long as it is punished.

Question 5

Functionalist point 1. Durkheim

Answer 5

Durkheim believe it’s functional because of the response such activities draw from society. Through degradation ceremonies such as criminal trials and public punishment were reminded of our shared norms and values. By publicly condemning those who have broken significant rules - not only are our norms and values reaffirmed but we also learn the LIMITS OF TOLERATION AND UNITE against the condemned. Therefore crime and deviance (or at least the public reaction to them eg trauma after Manchester Ariana grande attack) are functional because they serve to reinforce SOCIAL SOLIDARITY and INTEGRATE society.

Question 6

Functionalist point 1. Durkheim EVALUATION

Answer 6

However suggesting functions for crime and deviance isn’t the same as finding an explanation for then. Durkheim didn’t really tackle the underlying reasons as to WHY individuals commit crime if we all share a value consensus. Marxists would also challenge further issues as to who creates the law and who has the power to evade the law - issues which functionalists don’t consider.

Question 7

Functionalist point 2. Davis

Answer 7

Some functionalists believe that crime and deviance serves other functions too. For example Kingsley Davis argued that crime and deviance acts as a SAFETY VALVE - allowing an individual or group to let off steam to prevent worse deviance. Eg to tackle male needs for sexual satisfaction without damaging the family as an institution - prostitution is therefore a safe outlet for this function and can prevent further crimes eg promiscuity or even rape.

Question 8

Functionalist point 2. Davis Eval

Answer 8

Feminists in particular Marxist Feminists, would be highly critical of Davis’ work because it justifies a type of crime in a male dominated patriarchal society whereby male needs are deemed as more important than the health and welfare of women ( those exploited in prostitution). Therefore leading to a power conflict between the genders.

Question 9

Functionalist point 3. Merton Strain Theory

Answer 9

Merton believes that the American culture attaches great importance to success - which is measured by money / material possessions. The American dream suggests that anyone can become successful through legitimate means however the social structure prevents this equal opportunity. Merton believes that there is a STRAIN TOWARDS ANOMIE because the goal is more emphasises and so lower classes etc tend to focus on illegitimate and criminal means to achieve them. This tension that Individuals feel can produce various modes of adaptation; (CIRRR)

1. Conformity - work hard to legitimately aim for goal
2. Innovation - using deviant behaviour to aim for goal
3. Ritualism - reject goals and either work with no ambition or deviate
4. Retreatism - drop out of society and reject goals eg drug addicts
5. Rebellion - rebel and replace shared goals with alternatives eg joining organised movements eg terrorism

Question 10

Functionalist point 3. Merton EVAL

Answer 10

Marxists agree with Merton eg that there is a Capitalist divide in society BUT they criticise that the ruling class crime hasn’t been questioned with their crime and they get away with it.

Left realists would agree with Merton - blaming society for the cause of crime eg poverty and inequality etc but Right Realists believe it’s purely down to the individual and so disagree with the theory especially since it doesn’t provide an explanation for non monetary crime eg rape or vandalism.

Question 11

Functionalist conclusion

Answer 11

To conclude it doesn’t really explain why people other than working-class commit crimes in general or any classes committing non-monetary crime. However it does explain why crime is necessary in order for society to function in general. It also looks at lower classes which is what the police force tend to focus on policing anyway but also left realist solutions e.g. structural changes in society could help tackle this

Question 12

Marxist Introduction

Answer 12

Marxists believe that crime is created due to the structure and nature of capitalist societies. They argued that it is the powerful who benefit and look at issues such as the types of laws which are passed and enforced and who benefits. The capitalist system drives people to commit therefore it can be seen as CRIMINOGENIC.

Question 13

Marxism point 1. Gordon

Answer 13

Gordon argues that crime is a rational response to the situations people find themselves in And that capitalism, with its focus on competition for resources and inequality creates the conditions in which crime is carried out. Eg GHETTO CRIME - in poor neighbourhoods where they’re driven to criminality as a rational approach. Further reinforced by Bongers research stating that crime is caused by poverty as during an economic recession, the crime rate among the poor increases. Gordon further links this idea to corporate crime because in a competitive capitalist economy, corporate criminality is an attempt to maximise profits and bear the competition and so is a rational decision. Eg TNCS such as Google and Amazon have been involved with tax evasion and money laundering scandals.

Question 14

Marxism point 1. Gordon EVAL

Answer 14

It does take the economy into account and this correlation can be proven statistically between an economic decline period and crime rates. However left realists believe that Marxists place too much emphasis onto corporate crime in comparison to more damaging crimes eg assault, rape and burglary. The victims of these crimes tend to be working class and the consequences can be devastating. Therefore as capitalism can’t offer an explanation for these but can for tax evasion which causes less worry and concern, left realists believe Marxists don’t offer ways of dealing with crime that’s the cause of concern for the majority of the population.

Question 15

Marxism point 2. Marx

Answer 15

Marx also focused on the concept of alienation which describes the sense of powerlessness, lack of control and disconnectedness felt by the proletariat - essentially created by exploitation at work and capitalism. Therefore although it directly causes crime with decision making, it also does indirectly through alienation. This is because the visible evidence of inequality in society gives Proletariats frustration and a sense of injustice therefore leading to a flourishing of economic crime as well as violent street crime.

Question 16

Marxism point 2. Marx evaluation

Answer 16

Functionalists such as Durkheim would reject Marxist views that there’s conflict between the ruling and working class but instead that society is based on shared consensus, norms and values. Both classes need to work together for society to run smoothly and so crime is necessary in order for society to evolve ; its not the result of conflict as Marx suggests.

Question 17

NEOMarxism point 3. Taylor, Walton and Young

Answer 17

Taylor, Walton and Young have developed a full social theory of deviance which can be illustrated by Halls policing the crisis work. They believe that the WIDER ORIGINS OF THE DEVIANT ACT, IMMEDIATE ORIGINS OF THE DEVIANT ACT and then the ACTUAL ACT should be considered. For example the impact class divide, racial tension and poor economic conditions had on mugging as the actual act. Later the IMMEDIATE ORIGINS OF SOCIAL REACTION, then the WIDER ORIGINS OF SOCIAL REACTION, THE OUTCOMES of this reaction and finally the NATURE of this whole process should be considered. For example the media coverage and British public reaction led to a moral panic with the black mugger as a scapegoat but also led to stricter policing and tougher court sentences.

Question 18

NEOMarxism point 3. Taylor, Walton and Young EVAL

Answer 18

Strength is that it’s an integrated view of crime and deviance of Marx with an interactionalists labelling perspective. However it can be criticised for focussing too heavily on conflict between the Bourgeoisie and Proletariat classes as crime can’t be explained by just this. Eg Rock gave an example of the crime of speeding which has little to do with class conflict.

Question 19

Marxism conclusion

Answer 19

Although it magnifies on social class and ignores other factors eg age ethnicity and gender. For example heidensohn states it’s male stream and ignores the involvement of women AND functionalists believe that that Marxists ignore the positives of crime. It does however explain why WC commit and UP commit therefore giving more holistic views. This also reinforces why police focus on working class etc because of capitalist ideology and power issues and therefore left wing strategies such as Young’s structural changes, can help tackle these issues in the society.

Question 20

Interactionalist intro

Answer 20

Instead of seeking to explain why those that fit the typical criminal are more prone to commit crime, interactionalists are interested in exploring how and why particular grills or individuals come to be defined as criminal or deviant in the first police and how this decision affects their actions.

Question 21

Interactionalist point 1; BECKER and Lemert

Answer 21

They believe in the social construction of crime and deviance which is why for Becker - behaviour only becomes deviant when it’s been defined and labelled as such. Therefore Lemert argues that societal reaction to behaviour is more significant than the behaviour itself. Primary deviance is the deviant act and secondary deviance because when it’s visible and has been publicly labelled. Most of us have engaged in primary deviance but it has little effect on our identity or even society as a whole BUT once it’s been labelled then it effects our self concept.

Question 22

Interactionalist point 1; BECKER and Lemert EVAL

Answer 22

However although this theory focuses on the relativity and social construction of crime; it doesn’t provide an explanation for which primary deviance occurs in the first place. Deviance cannot be created because of a level as a burglar breaking, entering and stealing knows they’ve broken the law so being labelled as one doesn’t explain why they did it in the first place.

Question 23

Interactionalist point 2; BECKER and master status

Answer 23

Becker further argues that the effects of the labelling process can be significant as a deviant label contains an evaluation of the person to whom it’s applied to. It can become a ‘master status’ taking over all other characteristics of an individual. Therefore they can internalise this label and it will affect their self concept as they will try to live up to it (self fulfilling prophecy). Becker believes the individual may even go as further as a deviant career because of this ie joining a deviant group.

Question 24

Interactionalist point 2; BECKER and master status EVAL

Answer 24

However this has been criticised for being deterministic. It assumes that all criminals will pass let accept the label that’s been applied to them and then will live up to this label. Some people might decide to fight the label and change it eg reformed criminals who end up removing the criminal master status.

Question 25

Interactionalist point 3; moral panic and deviancy amplification

Answer 25

Another viewpoint is analysing the effects of the agencies of social control on the construction or deviance - in particular, the media. Cohen’s study on Mods and Rockers at Clayton Beach suggested that the media had produced a distorted picture of what had happened which firstly caused a moral panic where both mods and Rockers were seen as folk devils who’s behaviour constituted a threat to social order. But also deviancy amplification due to the power of ‘police / media’ with these labels and SO more arrests were made and more young people identified with each group.

Question 26

Interactionalist point 3; moral panic and deviancy amplification

Answer 26

However Young criticised the concept of a moral panic because it implies that crime is, in large part, constructed by the media. Young accepts that the media may exaggerate the crime problem but it does not fundamentally create it. The reality of crime, with its serious effects on victims, must be taken seriously and not merely reduced to a media construction.

Question 27

Interactionalist conclusion

Answer 27

Interactionalist approaches look at small scale interactions rather than social systems and structures in order to evaluate crime and deviance. It offers viable explanations focusing on the media which plays such a huge part in contemporary society, perhaps offering a more up to date theory than others eg Marxism.

Question 28

Subcultural theories Introduction

Answer 28

Subcultural theories explain deviance in terms of the subculture of a particular social group. Certain groups develop norms and values which are different from those held by other members of society.

Question 29

Subcultural theories point 1. Cohen Status Frustration

Answer 29

Functionalist theory that demonstrates this collective approach is the delinquent working class boys and status frustration by Cohen. They have the same goals as the rest of society eg being successful and rich however due to educational failure and the dead end hits they will have, they cannot attain these goals. This is down to their position in the social structure where their avenues to success are blocked and they may suffer from status frustration. The boys rent success and form a delinquent subculture where they reverse mainstream norms and values. A high value is placed on activities eg stealing, vandalism, truancy and positive rewards eg prestige, glory etc can be gained from participating.

Question 30

Subcultural theories point 1. Cohen Status Frustration EVAL

Answer 30

Advantage is the statistical link between educational failure and crime. It also explains why juvenile delinquency is often collective and why non utilitarian crimes eg joy riding take place. However Cohen has been criticised for ignoring female delinquency. Feminist Sociologists eg Carlen would focus on females from these same backgrounds who do commit crime.

Question 31

Subcultural theories point 2. Cloward and Ohlin

Answer 31

Cloward and Ohlin also see deviance as a reaction to problems in achieving the values of mainstream culture and are clearly influenced by Mertons strain theory. The deviant is unable to achieve valued goals through legitimate means and thus innovates using illegitimate or deviant means to attain them. There are 3 possible routes
1) criminal subcultures (Gangs can access the professional criminal hierarchy) 2) conflict subcultures (formed to defend territory in unstable or disorganised areas) and 3) retreatist subcultures (youths who withdraw from society all together eg drug abuse or petty crimes)

Question 32

Subcultural theories point 2. Cloward and Ohlin

Answer 32

An advantage of this theory is that it combines Merton and Cohen’s work so it’s useful as a development. However it can be criticised for seeing the working class as one homogenous group and assuming they share the same norms and values as middle class boys eg money and success. Therefore the working class can’t ALL be blamed fir committing a crime.

Question 33

Subcultural theories point 3. Cultural criminology Katz

Answer 33

This focuses on the changes from modern to post modern society and how this has affected criminality. It brings a post modern view to delinquent subcultures and sees them as methods of expressing identity, resistance and power struggles. Katz argues that sociological explanations tend to focus on age, social class, ethnicity and gender but fail to take into account the ways in which people are drawn and propelled into crime and the attraction it has. For example in Lyngs concept of edge work - Individuals test boundaries by undertaking activities eg joy riding that lead to senses of exhilaration and accomplishment. Therefore Individuals see the deductions of crime and sense of danger in an increasingly complex postmodern society.

Question 34

Subcultural theories point 3. Cultural criminology Katz EVAL

Answer 34

Marxists and Right realists would criticise this viewpoint because they believe that people commit crime as a result of society. For example Gordon argues that ‘ghetto crime’ = poor driven to criminality as a rational approach and corporations engage in deviant activities due to the competitive capitalist economy. Furthermore Clarke believes individuals commit crime if the benefits outweigh the costs. Therefore they would both argue that cultural theories are undermining winder issues of why crime happens

Question 35

Subcultural theories conclusion

Answer 35

Overall subcultural views are a good approach when understanding why crime happens. It takes various viewpoints into account eg functionalist and post modernists etc. However they don’t provide an explanation for gender, age or ethnicity differences but instead see these groups (in particular WC youth subcultures as homogenous). For example there are those who don’t fit this criminal stereotype eg why upper class white females take part in corporate crime or why more serious crimes take place. Therefore these theories provide a better over view in understanding youth subculture crime or gang crime rather than general crime in society.

Question 36

Left realism Introduction

Answer 36

Left Realists blame society, inequalities and deprivation for the existence of crime and deviance.

Question 37

Left Realism point 1. Matthews and Young

Answer 37

They see the notion of the square of crime as a reminder that crime arises at an intersection. We must acknowledge four factors; the role of the offender, the role of the victim, the understanding of public opinion and informal social control expressed through the media / peers/ community red and also the role of the state and formal agencies of social control eg criminal justice system.

Question 38

Left Realism point 1. Matthews and Young EVAL

Answer 38

It aims to provide a holistic explanation of crime, combining the importance of both structure and action into one all encompassing analysis of society. However other theorists would argue that essentially one factor drives all of these agencies eg Marxists blame capitalism as the underlying structural cause and Interactionalists believe they’re all subject to media and labelling etc

Question 39

Left Realism point 2. Lea and Young

Answer 39

They base their attempt to explain crime around 3 key concepts
- relative deprivation
This leads to crime if people feel resentment in relation to those better off. Young believes we live in a bulimic society whereby citizens are encouraged to worship success etc so some people eg youths are excluded from this and feel social injustice

• Marginalisation
  feel abandoned and frustrated experiencing economic / social and political deprivation. This may lead young people to confront authority and behave in a deviant way due to resentment.
• Subculture
  Allow individuals to feel socially included and facilitate crime and deviance by making such behaviour seem acceptable

Question 40

Left Realism point 2. Lea and Young EVAL

Answer 40

Right realists would criticise by saying that left realists focus on later stages of a persons life rather than the role of the upbringing and economic or social circumstances that might occur when crime happens. Eg could look better at agents of socialisation and their effects on an individual.

Question 41

Left Realism point 3. Victim surveys

Answer 41

Left realists emphasise the role of victims and rely on victim surveys. Eg CSEW aims to complement police stats by directly asking respondents about personal and property crimes. In some cases crime is up to four times higher than what police stats show because it can account for some of the dark figure of crime. Local crime surveys eg Islington Crime Survey - focus on victims in a geographic region of feminist surveys eg Dobash and Dobash’s domestic violence.

Question 42

Left Realism point 3. Victim surveys EVAL

Answer 42

Although it can look at crimes that often don’t appear in official statistics eg domestic violence / rape , it can’t take into account crimes that have no specific victims eg vandalism or white collar crime.

Left Realists have also been criticised for their lack of empirical evidence. They rely heavily on the use of victim surveys for their evidence - but these can have flaws and might not reveal very much about other areas of crime that need investigating.

Question 43

Left realism conclusion

Answer 43

However functionalists would argue that crime is necessary in society. Right Realists would also disagree with the emphasis put on society because they believe crime should be considered based on the offender. Interactionalists also would because they believe that the extent of crime and deviance being socially constructed has been undermined.

in conclusion though, they reject approaches that explain crime and deviance as a social construct therefore offering a structural explanation focusing on the way society is organised. Therefore they have practical solutions that aim to reduce real crime.

Question 44

Right Realist theories of crime

Answer 44

They blame the individual as they see inadequate social Control as the key to understanding growths in crime.

Question 45

Right Realism point 1. Wilson and Herrnstein

Answer 45

They believe that crime is caused by a combination of biosocial factors. For example an increase in the proportion of young males in the population is likely to increase the crime rate like it did in the 1970s. This aggression is partly biologically based in young men therefore making them prone to crime. They also explored the way young men are socialised in the family, school and wider community. There’s been growth of a culture which emphasises immediate gratification (the immediate satisfaction of wants and desires) and low impulsive control (fewer restraints on behaviour) and self expression (the outward expression of feelings). These aspects of culture have produced a less effective learning environment for many young men and as a result they’re less likely to conform to social values and norms and more likely to commit crime.

Question 46

Right Realism point 1. Wilson and Herrnstein EVAL

Answer 46

Generally rejects the idea that economic and social inequality can generate crime which is what Left Realists advocate. Wilson and Herrnstein mainly focus on reasons why crime happens by certain individuals but not the social factors that drive them to committing.
Feminists would also be critical because they have ignored female presence and solely focused on males.

Question 47

Right Realism point 2.NEW RIGHT VIEW

Answer 47

Murray believes that the growth of the underclass is a key cause of crime. This is low class subculture that exists below the working class with deviant and criminal values. It’s seen as a breeding ground for crime where the deplorable behaviour of young males results from inadequate socialisation in female headed families and a lack of mainstream rolemodels. These families are also dependent on over generous welfare benefits therefore men who do not support their families, find other ways to prove their masculinity eg taking destructive forms. Many turn to crime as a result and the high crime rates in inner city areas/council estates tend to reinforce this.

Further Murray and Herrnstein also consider the link between intelligence and criminal behaviour. Using IQ data, they attempted to demonstrate that there is a correlation between low IQ and criminality.

Question 48

Right Realism point 2.NEW RIGHT VIEW EVAL

Answer 48

Although it can be partially proven statistically eg Flood Page eg Al found that children (especially males) were more likely to offend than those who lived with 2 natural parents. Murray’s Research has been criticised for being deterministic and stereotyping those born into single families, families on benefits and those living on council states because not all will deviate! Young believes that these groups are an easy end envy and become scapegoats.
Furthermore the IQ correlation can be criticised because it fails to consider other reasons that can affect both intelligence and criminal behaviour eg POVERTY.

Question 49

Right Realism point 3. Clarke and Hirschi

Answer 49

Clarke believes that the decision to commit crime is a choice based on rational calculations of the consequences. If the rewards of crime outweigh the costs then people will commit crime. Right realists believe that the costs of crime are low therefore their solutions are focused on tougher social control (military style policing and harsher sentences) etc to help deter it. Hitachi reinforced this idea with his argument that it’s the four social controls (attatchment, commitment, involvement and belief) that stop us from committing crime and as we get older we tend to acquire more of these compared to younger people where the benefits may outweigh costs.

Question 50

Right Realism point 3. Clarke and Hirschi EVAL

Answer 50

Right realists have been criticised in relation to rational choice theory. They seem to over emphasise the rationality of crime and the choices that criminals make because some crimes are opportunistic and occur in the spur of the moment eg violent crimes of passion

Question 51

Right realism conclusion

Answer 51

Other theorists would identify these ‘explanations’ for crime patterns and trends rather than reasons why it happens overall eg explaining why boys commit 80% of crime. For example Functionalists believes it is functional for society and Interactionalists believe they’ve undermined the importance of the social construction of crime eg by media in contemporary society.

Overall however they reject approaches that explain crime and deviance as a social construction and therefore offers a structural explanation focusing on the offenders social background, upbringing or social position. Therefore right wing practical solutions aim to reduce real crime problems.

Question 52

Feminist Introduction

Answer 52

Focuses on why females commit don’t commit.

Question 53

Feminism point 1: the chivalry thesis

Answer 53

This theory focuses on the idea that females are treated mor leniently than males by the police and courts. Males dominate the criminal justice system and see women as vulnerable and childlike and not responsible for their crimes. Male police officers might let female offenders off with just a warning or a caution, and judges might sentence females more leniently than males.

Question 54

Feminism point 1: the chivalry thesis EVALUATION

Answer 54

Offers an explanation for the low incidence of women in official crime stats as women make up 18% of arrests and 25% of convictions (m.o.j 2013)

BUT Klein has criticised it for being too simplistic, chivalry is racist and classist too eg white middle class women. These are the ones unlikely to come into contact with the police force in the first place so it’s too simple to say gender alone when other factors such as ethnicity, social class and age come into factor too.

Marxists would criticise this theory because they believe that some criminals commit crime due to their negative situations eg Carlens work on poverty struck women offenders RATHED than chivalry as an attraction.

Question 55

Feminism point 2; Adler liberation

Answer 55

Adler conducted her research by using international stats which showed increasing levels of female involvement in traditionally male dominated crimes eg robbery. She cites liberation as the main cause because women are moving away from the domestic sphere and have more opportunities to commit crime as well as better and equal self identity in society.

Question 56

Feminism point 2; Adler liberation evaluation

Answer 56

(+) Gelsthorpe stated a 150% increase in women in prison in England and Wales between 94-2004. It seems female criminality did increase for this period but females commit less crime overall.

(-) Just because there’s more females in prison doesn’t mean there’s been an increase in crime but maybe a change in policing or sentencing policies ?

(-) the notion of successful females committing crime due to liberation can be criticised because common female crimes include shoplifting and prostitution and these are driven by poverty and oppression. Poor and marginalised women are more likely to commit crime rather than women who would experience liberalisation.

Question 57

Feminism point 3; Heidensohn

Answer 57

Helps to explain why women don’t deviate in such a patriarchal society. They experience 4 forms of conformity:

• home (housewife and mother expectations and constraints)
• work (dual burden of housewife too and subordinate position with glass ceiling theory)
• public (notions of reputation eg expectations of a women’s place in society)
• social policy (welfare and benefits that reinforce their main role are primary carers)

Question 58

Feminism point 3; Heidensohn evaluation

Answer 58

Pat Carlen has challenged and developed control theory to explain why some women commit crime despite such a patriarchal society. The cost of criminal behaviour will usually outweigh the benefits but the offenders are likely to be marginalised in society etc and so see positives of crime.

It’s supportive by Sutherland sex role theory and Mcrobbies bedroom culture showing the different controls on the genders.

Question 59

Feminism conclusion

Answer 59

Helpful in offering insight into the gender distribution of crime; especially when combined with studies focusing on males and criminality eg Messerschmidts theory on hegemonic masculinity. It isolates one variable and explains the differences within gender just as Marxist explanations explore social class as an independent factor as corporate crime and wc crime is all due to capitalism. Therefore in order to truely look at the population as a whole rather than specifics eg female involvement - we need more viable explanations that can be applied to everyone eg Functionalists.