RESEARCH METHODS Flashcards

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1
Q

Laboratory experiment

A

Takes place in well-controlled environment and accurate measurements of behavior are recorded.
The IV is manipulated by the experimenter then a dependent variable is accurately measured to see whether the manipulation of the IV has caused changes in the measurement of the DV
because all possible confounding variables are controlled, one can argue cause and effect (that is, the IV has caused changes in the DV).

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2
Q

lab strengths

A

It is easier to replicate (i.e. copy) a laboratory experiment. This is because a standardized procedure is used.
They allow for precise control of extraneous and independent variables. This allows a cause and effect relationship to be established.

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3
Q

lab weaknesses

A

The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behavior that does not reflect real life, i.e. low ecological validity. This means it would not be possible to generalize the findings to a real life setting.
Demand characteristics or experimenter effects may bias the results and become confounding variables.

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4
Q

Field experiments

A

Field Experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in a real-life setting so cannot really control extraneous variables meaning experimenters are less able to argue cause and effect relationships.

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5
Q

Field strengths

A

Behaviour in a field experiment is more likely to reflect life real because of its natural setting, i.e. higher ecological validity than a lab experiment.
There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as participants may not know they are being studied. This occurs when the study is covert (hidden). However, a hidden observer recording information without the participants’ knowledge and consent has ethical implications.

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6
Q

field weaknesses

A

There is less control over extraneous variables that might bias the results. This makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way and makes it less valid to argue cause and effect relations between the manipulation of the IV and changes in the DV compared with laboratory experiments

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7
Q

natural experiments

A

Natural Experiments are when the experimenter has no control over the IV as it occurs naturally in real life. The researchers will take advantage of already existing conditions, and compare the phenomena that occur between those groups. It is likely that extraneous variables will exist, as even the manipulation of the IV is not in the researchers’ hands

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8
Q

natural strengths

A

Behavior in a natural experiment is more likely to reflect life real because of the very real nature of the independent variable.
Can be used in situations in which it would be ethically unacceptable to manipulate the independent variable, e.g. researching stress.

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9
Q

natural weaknesses

A

They may be more expensive and time consuming than lab experiments, and in some natural experiments, the occurrence of the IV may take years.
The lack of control over extraneous variables might bias the results. This makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way.

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10
Q

natural experiment caution

A

Some natural experiments have the feel of a laboratory experiment, but because the IV is naturally occurring, it cannot be thought of as a ‘real’ experiment because participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions.

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11
Q

correlation

A

Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related.
If an increase in one variable leads to an increase in the other then this is known as a positive correlation.
If an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in the other then this is known as a negative correlation.
A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables.

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12
Q

correlation strengths

A

Can be used when research would be impossible or unethical to manipulate an IV.
One can predict the value from one variable based on the value from another variable if they are correlated.

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13
Q

correlation weaknesses

A

Cannot and must not infer cause and effect relationships

Can only detect linear (straight line) relationships.

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14
Q

natural, participant and controlled observation

A

Natural observations are when natural behavior is observed and the data recorded without interference from the researcher
Controlled observations are when some aspects of the environment are controlled for the observation in a laboratory setting (although there is no IV)
Participant observations are where the researchers become part of the group and observe behavior from within

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15
Q

Covert and overt observations

A

Covert observations are when the researcher pretends to be an ordinary member of the group and observes in secret. There could be ethical problems or deception and consent with this particular method of observation.
Overt observations are when the researcher tells the group he or she is conducting research (i.e. they know they are being observed).

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16
Q

observation weaknesses

A

it can be difficult to determine the exact cause of a behavior and the experimenter cannot control for outside variables. People may behave differently when they know they are being watched and •Different observers may draw different conclusions from the same witnessed behavior.

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17
Q

observation strengths

A

it allows the researcher to directly observe the subject in a natural setting. It allows researchers to study things that cannot be manipulated in a lab due to ethical concerns and It can help support the external validity of research.

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18
Q

unstructured interview

A

Unstructured (informal) interviews are like a casual conversation. There are no set questions and the participant is given the opportunity to raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their own way. In this kind of interview much qualitative data is likely to be collected.

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19
Q

structured interview

A

Structured (formal) interviews are like a job interview. There is a fixed, predetermined set of questions that are put to every participant in the same order and in the same way. The interviewer stays within their role and maintains social distance from the interviewee.

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20
Q

structured interview strengths

A

easy to replicate as a fixed set of closed questions are used, which are easy to test for reliability.
Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means that many interviews can take place within a short amount of time.

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21
Q

structured interview weaknesses

A

Structure interviews are not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked impromptu as an interview schedule must be followed.
The answers from structured interviews lack detail as only closed questions are asked which generates quantitative data. This means a research will won’t know why a person behave in a certain way.

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22
Q

unstructured interview strengths

A

Unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions can be adapted and changed depending on the respondents’ answers.
Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data which allows the respondent to talk in some depth which helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.
They also have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding.

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23
Q

unstructured interview weaknesses

A

Can be time consuming to conduct the unstructured interview and analyze the qualitative data.
Employing and training interviewers is expensive, and not as cheap as questionnaires.

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24
Q

questionnaires

A

Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone or post and provide a relatively cheap, quick and efficient way of obtaining large amounts of information from a large sample of people

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25
Q

open ended questionnaires

A

Open questions allow people to express what they think in their own words and they provide a rich source of qualitative information as there is no restriction to the response.

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26
Q

closed ended questionnaires

A

Closed questions structure the answer by allowing only answers which fit into categories that have been decided in advanced by the researcher. Data that can be placed into a category is called nominal data.
The options can be restricted to as few as two (e.g. ‘yes’ or ‘no’), or include quite complex lists of alternatives from which the respondent can choose.

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27
Q

closed ended questionnaire strengths

A

They can economical. This means they can provide large amounts of research data for relatively low costs.
The data can be quickly obtained as closed questions are easy to answer This means a large sample size can be obtained
The questions are standardized. All respondents are asked exactly the same questions in the same order. so they are reliable

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28
Q

closed ended questionnaire weaknesses

A

They lack detail. Because the response if fixed, there is less scope for respondents to supply answers which reflects their true feelings on a topic.

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29
Q

open ended questionnaire strengths

A

Rich qualitative data is obtained as open questions allow the respondent to elaborate on their answer.

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30
Q

open ended questionnaire weaknesses

A

Time consuming to collect the data. It takes longer for the respondent to complete open questions. This is a problem as a smaller sample size may be obtained.
Time consuming to analyze the data. It takes longer for the research to analyze qualitative as they have to read the answers and try to put them into categories by coding, which is often subjective and difficult.

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31
Q

case studies

A

Case studies are non-experimental investigations into human behavior. Researchers will record the behavior of one individual or a small group of individuals, usually collecting detailed qualitative data over a long period of time. The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies

32
Q

case studies strengths

A

They allow the researcher to investigate human phenomena that would not be acceptable to manipulate in experimental conditions.
They allow the researcher to collect rich, detailed and meaningful qualitative information, rather than quantitative data without a great deal of depth. One case study may be all it takes to change a theory.

33
Q

case studies weaknesses

A

A case study deals with only one person/event/group so the researcher can never be sure whether conclusions drawn from this particular case apply elsewhere. The results of the study are not generalizable. Case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative data, therefore a lot depends on the interpretation the psychologist places on the information he or she has acquired.

34
Q

hypothesis

A

A Hypothesis is a testable statement used in science to find evidence to support or contradict a theory

35
Q

types of hypothesis

A

Null: A prediction that the IV does not affect the DV
non-directional: A prediction that the IV affects the DV but not in a specific way
Directional: A prediction that the IV affects the DV in a specific way.

36
Q

independent group design

A

Different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes a different group of participants. This should be done by random allocation, which ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to one group or the other, this minimizes the risk of researcher and probability bias .

37
Q

independent group design strengths

A

Participants are not likely to be affected by order effects, as they are only involved in one of the conditions. Demand Characteristics are less likely, as there are fewer clues about the research hypothesis in an independent groups design.

38
Q

independent group design weaknesses

A

Participant variables are the main disadvantage, as participants are different in each condition, any difference between conditions in the DV may be down to the different characteristics and abilities of the participants, and not the manipulation of the IV.

39
Q

repeated measure design

A

The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes the same group of participants.

40
Q

repeated measure design strengths

A

This design eliminates the risk that participant variables will influence the DV, as they are the same participants taking part. Another advantage is that a smaller number of participants are required which is an advantage of convenience.

41
Q

repeated measure design weaknesses

A

This design is more likely to be affected by order effects, as participants may improve in the second condition if it is a skills based test because of practice, or may perform worse if the tasks are long (fatigue) or boring
Sample drop off and participant reactivity are also concerns using this design, as are the increased risks of demand characteristics.

42
Q

matched-pairs design

A

Different participants take part in each condition, but each participant in one condition has been matched with another participant in the other condition on important characteristics.

43
Q

matched-pairs design strengths

A

This has the same advantages as the independent groups design, but with a lower risk of participant variables influencing the DV. So the matched-pairs design eliminates order effects, whilst reducing participant variables

44
Q

matched-pairs design weaknesses

A

It can be difficult to find similar participants to take part in either condition, and it may be challenging to know exactly which characteristics are required to match. It is considered that this design takes the longest to prepare, so is often overlooked in research where resources are limited.

45
Q

pilot study

A

A pilot study is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used in an investigation; it involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them. It is possible to save time, and in some cases, money, by identifying any flaws in the procedures designed by the researcher.

46
Q

how does a pilot study help

A

A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities or confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised.

47
Q

operationalizing a variable

A

refers to how you plan to measure and thus define your variable. For example, memory performance could be defined operationally in terms of the number of words recalled from a word list. It could also be defined in terms of a recognition test. Sometimes how you operationally define a variable can have important consequences on the conclusions you make.

48
Q

random sample

A

The Random Sample technique is where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. A researcher must have access to the names of every person in the target population for a truely random sample.

49
Q

random sample strengths

A

Considered the most scientific method, it reduces the possibility of researchers choosing samples that would support their hypothesis. It is also considered one of the best ways to reduce the likelihood of a biased sample occurring by chance, but does not eliminate this possibility.

50
Q

random sample weaknesses

A

It is very difficult to collect the names of every one in a given population, electoral registers do not contain every one, some participants may refuse to take part, and the vastness of some target populations make this method virtually impossible.

51
Q

opportunity sample

A

This sampling method is considered the most straightforward, as the researchers use anyone who is available to study at that time. For example, a Psychology student may walk into the library to collect students for their project.

52
Q

opportunity sample evaluation

A

:)A quick and convenient method of sampling.
:(It is likely to produce a biased sample. As it only uses the people available which might just be one type of people Thus it is highly unlikely that the results of the study can be generalized to a wider population

53
Q

volunteer sample

A

Participants select themselves to be part of a study, often by replying to an advertisement in a newspaper, magazine, poster or online. It is for this reason that this sample is often called a ‘self-selected’ sample.

54
Q

volunteer sample strengths

A

This can reduce the amount of time
necessary to search participants with specific criteria required for the study
The potential units or cases are likely to be committed
to take part in the study, which can help in improving attendance.

55
Q

volunteer sample weaknesses

A

There is likely to be a degree of self-selection bias. For example, the decision to participate in the study may reflect some inherent bias in the characteristics/traits of the participants.
This can either lead to the sample not being representative of the population being studied, or exaggerating some particular finding from the study.

56
Q

demand characteristics

A

When characteristics of the investigation demand a certain behavior from the participants, which means that the participants change their behavior from what they would have done if they had not known the aims of the study.

57
Q

Investigator effects

A

Refers to the effect that the experimenter has on the participants that may well change their behavior, confounding the results. This could be done by the experimenter may not be able to communicate the instructions very well, or may have certain physical characteristics that distract the participants.

58
Q

Tables and graphical representation of descriptive data

A

When psychologists conduct a research study, they often get a lot of data that appears meaningless when look at in its raw form. For example:

Scores from condition A:
3, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6, 4, 5, 3, 4, 5
scores from condition B:
2, 3, 2, 1, 3, 2, 4, 5, 3, 7, 6,

On the face of things, it is difficult to see any differences between these two conditions, but when we look at their descriptive statistics, it tells us a lot more

Condition A: Mean = 5.7 S.D. = 1.83
Condition B: Mean = 4.3 S.D. = 1.70

These descriptive statistics tell us that on average, participants scored higher in condition A than in Condition B, but both sets of data were spread out quite similarly, with condition A being slightly more spread out from the mean than condition B.

59
Q

standard deviation

A

Standard Deviation is a measure of variation (or variability) that indicates the typical distance between the scores of a distribution and the mean. watch video

60
Q

content analysis

A

Content analysis is a research tool used to indirectly observe the presence of certain words, images or concepts within the media, Researchers quantify (i.and analyze the presence, meanings and relationships of words and concepts, then make inferences about the messages within the media, the writer, the audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a part.

61
Q

to conduct a content analysis

A

To conduct a content analysis on any such media, the media is coded or broken down, into manageable categories on a variety of levels - word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme - and then examined.

62
Q

design of questionnaire

A

Make sure that any questions asked address the aims of the research.
The longer the questionnaire the less likely people will complete it so make it short
run a pilot study, easy questions first, make questions easy and Make sure it looks professional, include clear and concise instructions.

63
Q

design of interview

A

First you must choose whether to use a structured or non-structured interview.
Next, you must consider who will be the interviewer, and this will depend on what type of person is being interviewed. There are a number of variable to consider:
• Gender and Age:
• Personal characteristics:
•Ethnicity:

64
Q

Variables

A
  • Dependent variable (DV): Variable the experimenter measures, after making changes to the IV that are assumed to affect the DV.
  • Independent variable (IV): Variable the experimenter manipulates (i.e. changes) – assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable
65
Q

controlling extraneous variables

A

Participants will be affected by: (i) their surrounding; (ii) the researcher’s characteristics; (iii) the researcher’s behavior (e.g. non-verbal communication), and (iv) their interpretation of what is going on in the situation.

Experimenters should attempt to minimize these factors by keeping the environment as natural as possible, carefully following standardized procedures.

66
Q

internal validity

A

Internal validity refers to whether the effects observed in a study are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not some other factor. In-other-words there is a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variable.
Internal validity can be improved by controlling extraneous variables, using standardized instructions, counter balancing, and eliminating demand characteristics and investigator effects.

67
Q

external validity

A

External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other settings (ecological validity), other people (population validity) and over time (historical validity).
External validity can be improved by setting experiments in a more natural setting and using random sampling to select participants.

68
Q

validity

A

Kelly stated that a test is valid if it measures what it claims to measure.

69
Q

reliability

A

reliability in psychological research refers to the consistency of a research study or measuring test. If findings from research are replicated consistently they are reliable.

70
Q

informed consent

A

Before the study begins the researcher must outline to the participants what the research is about, and then ask their consent to take part. In practice this means it is not sufficient to simply get potential participants to say “Yes”. They also need to know what it is that they are agreeing to.

71
Q

debrief

A

After the research is over the participant should be able to discuss the procedure and the findings with the psychologist. They must be given a general idea of what the researcher was investigating and why, and their part in the research should be explained. They must be told if they have been deceived and given reasons why.

72
Q

protection from harm

A

Researchers must ensure that those taking part in research will not be caused distress. They must be protected from physical and mental harm. This means you must not embarrass, frighten, offend or harm participants. Normally, the risk of harm must be no greater than in ordinary life. Also vulnerable groups should receive special care.

73
Q

Confidentiality

A

Participants, and the data gained from them must be kept anonymous unless they give their full consent. No names must be used in a research report.

74
Q

right to withdraw

A

Participants should be able to leave a study at any time if they feel uncomfortable. They should also be allowed to withdraw their data. They should be told at the start of the study that they have the right to withdraw. They should not have pressure placed upon them to continue if they do not want to

75
Q

deception

A

The researcher should avoid deceiving participants about the nature of the research unless there is no alternative – and even then this would need to be judged acceptable by an independent expert. Types of deception include deliberate misleading, staged manipulations in field settings or deceptive instructions.