RESEARCH METHODS Flashcards
Laboratory experiment
Takes place in well-controlled environment and accurate measurements of behavior are recorded.
The IV is manipulated by the experimenter then a dependent variable is accurately measured to see whether the manipulation of the IV has caused changes in the measurement of the DV
because all possible confounding variables are controlled, one can argue cause and effect (that is, the IV has caused changes in the DV).
lab strengths
It is easier to replicate (i.e. copy) a laboratory experiment. This is because a standardized procedure is used.
They allow for precise control of extraneous and independent variables. This allows a cause and effect relationship to be established.
lab weaknesses
The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behavior that does not reflect real life, i.e. low ecological validity. This means it would not be possible to generalize the findings to a real life setting.
Demand characteristics or experimenter effects may bias the results and become confounding variables.
Field experiments
Field Experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in a real-life setting so cannot really control extraneous variables meaning experimenters are less able to argue cause and effect relationships.
Field strengths
Behaviour in a field experiment is more likely to reflect life real because of its natural setting, i.e. higher ecological validity than a lab experiment.
There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as participants may not know they are being studied. This occurs when the study is covert (hidden). However, a hidden observer recording information without the participants’ knowledge and consent has ethical implications.
field weaknesses
There is less control over extraneous variables that might bias the results. This makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way and makes it less valid to argue cause and effect relations between the manipulation of the IV and changes in the DV compared with laboratory experiments
natural experiments
Natural Experiments are when the experimenter has no control over the IV as it occurs naturally in real life. The researchers will take advantage of already existing conditions, and compare the phenomena that occur between those groups. It is likely that extraneous variables will exist, as even the manipulation of the IV is not in the researchers’ hands
natural strengths
Behavior in a natural experiment is more likely to reflect life real because of the very real nature of the independent variable.
Can be used in situations in which it would be ethically unacceptable to manipulate the independent variable, e.g. researching stress.
natural weaknesses
They may be more expensive and time consuming than lab experiments, and in some natural experiments, the occurrence of the IV may take years.
The lack of control over extraneous variables might bias the results. This makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way.
natural experiment caution
Some natural experiments have the feel of a laboratory experiment, but because the IV is naturally occurring, it cannot be thought of as a ‘real’ experiment because participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions.
correlation
Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related.
If an increase in one variable leads to an increase in the other then this is known as a positive correlation.
If an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in the other then this is known as a negative correlation.
A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables.
correlation strengths
Can be used when research would be impossible or unethical to manipulate an IV.
One can predict the value from one variable based on the value from another variable if they are correlated.
correlation weaknesses
Cannot and must not infer cause and effect relationships
Can only detect linear (straight line) relationships.
natural, participant and controlled observation
Natural observations are when natural behavior is observed and the data recorded without interference from the researcher
Controlled observations are when some aspects of the environment are controlled for the observation in a laboratory setting (although there is no IV)
Participant observations are where the researchers become part of the group and observe behavior from within
Covert and overt observations
Covert observations are when the researcher pretends to be an ordinary member of the group and observes in secret. There could be ethical problems or deception and consent with this particular method of observation.
Overt observations are when the researcher tells the group he or she is conducting research (i.e. they know they are being observed).
observation weaknesses
it can be difficult to determine the exact cause of a behavior and the experimenter cannot control for outside variables. People may behave differently when they know they are being watched and •Different observers may draw different conclusions from the same witnessed behavior.
observation strengths
it allows the researcher to directly observe the subject in a natural setting. It allows researchers to study things that cannot be manipulated in a lab due to ethical concerns and It can help support the external validity of research.
unstructured interview
Unstructured (informal) interviews are like a casual conversation. There are no set questions and the participant is given the opportunity to raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their own way. In this kind of interview much qualitative data is likely to be collected.
structured interview
Structured (formal) interviews are like a job interview. There is a fixed, predetermined set of questions that are put to every participant in the same order and in the same way. The interviewer stays within their role and maintains social distance from the interviewee.
structured interview strengths
easy to replicate as a fixed set of closed questions are used, which are easy to test for reliability.
Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means that many interviews can take place within a short amount of time.
structured interview weaknesses
Structure interviews are not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked impromptu as an interview schedule must be followed.
The answers from structured interviews lack detail as only closed questions are asked which generates quantitative data. This means a research will won’t know why a person behave in a certain way.
unstructured interview strengths
Unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions can be adapted and changed depending on the respondents’ answers.
Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data which allows the respondent to talk in some depth which helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.
They also have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding.
unstructured interview weaknesses
Can be time consuming to conduct the unstructured interview and analyze the qualitative data.
Employing and training interviewers is expensive, and not as cheap as questionnaires.
questionnaires
Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone or post and provide a relatively cheap, quick and efficient way of obtaining large amounts of information from a large sample of people
open ended questionnaires
Open questions allow people to express what they think in their own words and they provide a rich source of qualitative information as there is no restriction to the response.
closed ended questionnaires
Closed questions structure the answer by allowing only answers which fit into categories that have been decided in advanced by the researcher. Data that can be placed into a category is called nominal data.
The options can be restricted to as few as two (e.g. ‘yes’ or ‘no’), or include quite complex lists of alternatives from which the respondent can choose.
closed ended questionnaire strengths
They can economical. This means they can provide large amounts of research data for relatively low costs.
The data can be quickly obtained as closed questions are easy to answer This means a large sample size can be obtained
The questions are standardized. All respondents are asked exactly the same questions in the same order. so they are reliable
closed ended questionnaire weaknesses
They lack detail. Because the response if fixed, there is less scope for respondents to supply answers which reflects their true feelings on a topic.
open ended questionnaire strengths
Rich qualitative data is obtained as open questions allow the respondent to elaborate on their answer.
open ended questionnaire weaknesses
Time consuming to collect the data. It takes longer for the respondent to complete open questions. This is a problem as a smaller sample size may be obtained.
Time consuming to analyze the data. It takes longer for the research to analyze qualitative as they have to read the answers and try to put them into categories by coding, which is often subjective and difficult.