Research Methods. Flashcards
Experimental method:
Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi.
Aim:
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate.
Hypothesis:
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated.
Directional hypothesis:
States the direction or the difference or relationship.
Non-directional hypothesis:
Does not state the expected direction.
Variables:
Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation. Generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes in another.
Independent variable:
Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher- or changes naturally- so the effect on the DV can be measured.
Dependent varibale:
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV can be measured.
Operationalisation:
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
Extraneous variables:
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV if it is not controlled. Essentially nuisance variables that do not vary systematically systematically with the IV.
Confounding variables:
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have affected the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. They vary systematically with the iV.
Demand characteristics:
Any cue from the researcher in the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. May lead to p/pants changing their behaviour within the research situation.
Investigator effects:
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, interaction with, the p/pants during research processes.
Randomisation:
The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.
Standarisation:
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all p/pants in a research study.
Experimental design:
The different ways in which the testing of p/pants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.
Independent groups design:
P/pants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.
Repeated measures:
All p/pants take part in all conditions of the experiment.
Matched pairs design:
Pairs of p/pants are first matched on some variables that may affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and the other condition B.
Random allocation:
An attempt to control for p/pant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that one p/pants has the same chance of being in one condition as any other.
Counterbalancing:
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the p/pants experience the condition in one order and the other half in the opposite order.
Laboratory experiment:
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV while remaining in strict control of extraneous variables.
Lab experiments: Strengths-
-High control over extraneous variables.
-High internal validity (more certain about cause and effect) ^
-Replicability is higher due to the controlled environment.
Lab experiments: Limitations-
-Lack generalisability, labs are artificial.
-Low external validity ^
-Demand characteristics as p/pants know they are being tested.
-Mundane realism as the tasks may not reflect real life.
Field experiment:
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.
Field experiments: Strengths-
-Higher mundane realism
-High external validity as p/pants may not know they are being studied.
Field experiments: Limitations-
-Loss of control over extraneous variables.
-Precise replication is not possible.
-Ethical issues is p/pants are unaware it is happening they cannot consent and the study may invade privacy.
Natural experiment:
An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effects on the DV.
Natural experiments: Strength-
-High external validity because they study real life.
Natural experiments: Limitations-
-Natural event may occur rarely, reducing the opportunities for research.This may also limit generalisability.
-P/pants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions: the researcher may be less suer whether the IV affected the DV.
Quasi-experiment:
A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone- the ‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old or young. Strictly speaking this is not an experiment.
Quasi-experiments: Strengths-
-Controlled conditions, reducing extraneous variables.
Quasi-experiments: Limitations-
-Cannot randomly allocate p/pants to conditions and therefore there may be confounding variables.
Population:
A group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample size is drawn.
Sample:
A group of people who tale part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a (target) population and is presumed to be representative of that population.
Sampling techniques:
The method used to select people from the population.
Bias:
In the context of sampling, when certain groups may be over or under-represented within the sample selected. This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.
Generalisation:
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is made possible if the sample of p/pants is representative of the population targeted.
Random sampling:
Complete list of all members, all names are assigned a number, use a randomiser to select p/pants.
Systematic sampling:
Every nth member of the target population is selected .
Stratified sampling:
Create a list each p/pant has to meet in requirements, they are then selected randomly to make up the required amount of p/pants per strata.
Opportunity sampling:
Select anyone who is willing and available, often used when the target population is difficult to obtain.
Volunteer sampling:
P/pants selecting themselves to be part of the sample.
Random sample- Evaluation
-Free from researcher bias.
-Difficult and time consuming.
-May get an unrepresentative sample
-Selected p/pants may refuse to take part.
Stratified sample- Evaluation
-Avoids researcher bias.
-Representative sample.
-Generalisable findings are possible.
-Complete representation of target population is not possible.
Systematic sample- Evaluation
-Avoids researcher bias.
-Fairly representative.
Opportunity sampling- Evaluation
-Convenient
-Sample is unrepresentative to target population and cannot be generalised.
-Researcher bias is possible as they choose p/pants.
Volunteer sample- Evaluation
-Easy
-Volunteer bias is a problem (they may all be helpful, keen, curious)
Ethical issues:
When a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data.
BPS code of ethics:
A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. It is built around four major principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.
8 Ethics:
-Informed consent
-Deception
-Protection of p/pants.
-Confidentiality
-General
-Withdraw data
-Debrief
-Peer review
Pilot studies:
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted.
Single-blind procedure:
An attempt to control demand characteristics by withholding information from p/pants such as the aim.
Double-blind procedure:
The p/pants and researcher does not know the aims of the investigation.
Naturalistic observation:
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur.
Controlled observation:
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment.
Covert observation:
P/pants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.
Overt observation:
P/pants’ behaviour is watched/recorded with their consent.
Participant observation:
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching.
Non-participant observation:
The researcher remains outside if the group whose behaviour they are watching.
