Approaches in Psychology- Key Words!

Question 1

Bandura

Answer 1

Albert Bandura developed social learning theory and conducted experiments into conducted observational learning using the Bobo doll. While agreeing that humans could learn through classical and operant conditioning, he also argued that they could learn through observation and imitation.

Question 2

Behaviourist approach

Answer 2

Attempts to explain behaviour in terms of learning. Behaviourists study changes in behaviour that are caused by a person’s direct experience of their environment, using the principles of classical and operant conditioning. They are determined to be scientific and therefore refuse to discuss mental processes that might be involved in learning, because they are not observable and cannot be studied subjectively.

Question 3

Biological approach

Answer 3

Attempts to explain behaviour in terms of different biological processes, including genes, hormones, neurotransmitters, etc. According to the biological approach, the brain and the mind are identical, and brain psychology and biochemical imbalances can affect behaviour. Biological psychologists also believe that behaviour can be inherited, as it is determined by genetic information.

Question 4

Biological Structures

Answer 4

In relation to the biological approach in psychology, biological structures are organs (such as the brain) and systems (nervous system) that influence human behaviour.

Question 5

Classical conditioning

Answer 5

A type of learning discovered by Ivan Pavlov, in which an existing involuntary reflex response is associated with a new stimulus. The new stimulus is presented at the same time as another stimulus that already produces the response. After the two have been presented together a number of times, the new stimulus produces the same response, even in absence of the original stimulus.

Question 6

Comparison of Approaches

Answer 6

Involves identifying similarities and differences between the different approaches in psychology. They can be compared in terms of criteria such as the different issues and debates (e.g determinism, reductionism, nature versus nurture).

Question 7

Congruence

Answer 7

A term used by Carl Rogers (a humanist psychologist) to describe a state in which a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar. However Rogers felt that is was rare for a complete state of congruence to exist and that all people experience a certain amount of congruence.

Question 8

Counselling psychology

Answer 8

Focuses on providing therapeutic treatments to clients who experience a wide variety of symptoms, to help people of all ages deal with emotional, social, developmental and other life concerns. Humanistic psychology has provided several approaches to counselling and therapy. Person-centered therapy was designed by Carl Rogers.

Question 9

What is person-centered therapy?

Answer 9

Designed by Carl Rogers, person-centered therapy is non-directive ant the client is encouraged to discover their own solutions within a warm, supportive, non-judgemental environment.

Question 10

Defence mechanisms

Answer 10

Unconscious strategies used by the ego to manage anxiety by redirecting psychic energy. Examples include repression and displacement.

Question 11

Denial

Answer 11

A defence mechanism where a threatening thought is ignored or treated as if it were not true.

Question 12

Displacement

Answer 12

A defence mechanism where emotions are directed away from their source or target, towards something else.

Question 13

Ego

Answer 13

According to Sigmud Freud’s tripartite theory of personality, the ego is the part of the personality that acts rationally, balancing the id and the superego. It develops at 2-4 years old and acts according to the ‘reality principle’.

Question 14

Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience

Answer 14

It is an academic field that studies the influence of brain structures on mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience occurred due to advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans, which allow scientists to study the neurobiological basis of mental processes like memory.

Question 15

Emergence of psychology as a Science

Answer 15

Psychology emerged as a science at the beginning of the 20th Century when the behaviourists began to question the scientific status and value of introspection. Watson argued that rather than focus on subjective ‘private’ mental processes, psychology should study objective phenomena that could be observed and measured. This was the starting point for both the behaviourist approach and psychology emerging as a scientific discipline.

Question 16

Evolution

Answer 16

The gradual changes in an inherited characteristic of a species over many generations. Darwin explained this in terms of ‘survival of the fittest’, meaning that any characteristic or behaviour that increases the chance that an individual will survive and reproduce, would be passed on to future generations.

Question 17

Focus on the Self

Answer 17

Humanistic ideas about behaviour often focus on the self, which is an individuals consciousness in relation to their own identity. Carl Rogers believed that people could only fulfil their potential for personal growth if they had positive self-regard.

Question 18

Free Will

Answer 18

Humanistic psychologists believe that humans have free will. Humans are able to make their own decisions and are not determined by biological or environmental factors.

Question 19

Genes

Answer 19

The biochemical units of hereditary that make up chromosomes. Genes are segments of DNA molecules that code physical features and psychological features.

Question 20

Genetic basis of Behaviour

Answer 20

Refers to the idea that genes can be responsible for behaviour as well as physical characteristics. The genotype refers to the inherited genetic materials, whereas the phenotype is the expression of a person’s genotype, produced by interaction of the genotype and the environment.

Question 21

Genotype

Answer 21

A person’s unique genetic make-up that is coded in their chromosomes and fixed at conception. However, the expression of a genotype is influenced by environmental factors and becomes a person’s phenotype.

Question 22

Humanistic psychology

Answer 22

An approach that emphasises the study of the whole person and sees people as being active in their own development. It is a person-centered approach, which views every individual as unique and regards personal growth and fulfilment in life as a basic human motive.

Question 23

Id

Answer 23

According to Sigmund Freud’s tripartite theory of personality, the id is the part of personality that exists from birth and drives us. According to Freud, the id acts according to the ‘pleasure principle’.

Question 24

Identification (SLT)

Answer 24

Internalising and adopting behaviours shown by a role model, because they have a quality the individual would like to possess.

Question 25

Imitation

Answer 25

An individual copies the behaviour of a role model.

Question 26

Inferences

Answer 26

Conclusions reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning. Cognitive psychologists use computer models to draw conclusions regarding mental processes.

Question 27

Internal mental processes

Answer 27

Operations that occur in the mind, but can be studied scientifically. They are also known as mediational processes.

Question 28

Introspection

Answer 28

Observing and examining your own conscious thoughts and emotions. Wundt first used this method in the earliest psychology laboratory, Germany 1879.

Question 29

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 29

A theory of human motivation. The needs are presented in a five-level sequence, where basic needs have to be met before psychological needs.

Question 30

Modelling- SLT

Answer 30

When an observer imitates a role model.

Question 31

Neurochemistry

Answer 31

The chemical processes occurring in the nervous system.

Question 32

Operant conditioning

Answer 32

New voluntary behaviour is associated with a consequence. Reinforcement makes it more likely to occur.

Question 33

Pavlov

Answer 33

Russian biologist who first demonstrated classical conditioning.

Question 34

Phenotype

Answer 34

The expression of a person’s genetic make-up that can be influenced by the environment.

Question 35

Psychodynamic approach

Answer 35

Often associated with Sigmund Freud, who theorised that our mental activity is mostly unconscious, and that this unconscious activity shapes our behaviour. He explained that traumatic childhood experiences lead to psychological disorders, and developed ‘talking cures’ to help release problematic repressed memories and relieve symptoms.

Question 36

Psychosexual stages

Answer 36

Freud named five stages: oral behaviour (0-18 months), anal- holding or discarding faeces (18 month - 3.5 years), phallic- fixation on genitals (3.5- 6 years, latency- repressed sexual urges (6 years- puberty) , genital- awakened sexual urges (puberty onwards). Freud claimed that, during development, a child could become fixated on one of these stages, which could lead to specific psychological disorders.

Question 37

Repression

Answer 37

A defence mechanism, which involves burying and unpleasant though or desire in the unconscious.

Question 38

Role of conditions of worth.

Answer 38

Humanistic psychologists focus on the role of conditions of worth in explaining behaviour. People very often believe that they will only be loved and valued if they meet certain conditions of worth. These conditions of worth can create incongruity between the real self and the ideal self. The person is motivated to close the gap between the real and ideal self but may do this in ways that make them unahppy.

Question 39

Schemas

Answer 39

Cognitive frameworks that help us to organise and interpret information. They are developed through experience and can affect our cognitive processing.

Question 40

Self actualisation

Answer 40

The final stage of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Maslow found that individuals who attained this level share certain characteristic. These individuals are typically creative and have an accurate perception of themselves and the world around them.

Question 41

Skinner

Answer 41

Developed the theory of Operant conditioning and first introduced the term reinforcement to explain how to consequences of a particular behaviour make future behaviours more or less likely.

Question 42

Social Learning Theory- Approaches

Answer 42

Concerned with how people learn when they observe and imitate others. It can be seen as a bridge between the Behaviourist approach and the Cognitive approach as like the Behaviourist approach, it emphasises the importance of environment and reinforcement in learning. However, like in the cognitive approach, it acknowledges the important role that internal mental processes play in interpreting the environment and planning new actions.

Question 43

Superego

Answer 43

According to Sigmund Freud’s tripartite theory of personality, the superego is the part of personality concerned with keeping to moral norms . It develops around 4-5 years old and acts according to the morality principle, attempting to control a powerful id with feelings of guilt.

Question 44

Mediational processes

Answer 44

Mental factors that intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new behaviour is acquired or not. The four proposed by Bandura are: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation.

Question 45

Theoretical and computer models

Answer 45

Used by cognitive psychologists to study mental processes. Theoretical models are diagrammatic representations of the steps involved in internal mental processes. Computer models are software stimulations of internal mental processes that are created in collaboration with computer scientists.

Question 46

Reinforcement- SLT

Answer 46

Can be direct or indirect. Positive or negative.

Question 47

Unconscious

Answer 47

The unconscious mind consists of mental processes that are inaccessible to consciousness but still influence us. Freud believes that the unconscious mind was the primary source of human behaviour and stated that like an iceberg, the most important part of the mind is the part you cannot see.

Question 48

Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 48

When learners observe role models receiving either positive or negative reinforcement. Because the learner has observed the consequences of the behaviour they are mire (or less) likely to imitate it.

Question 49

Wundt

Answer 49

Willian Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory in Germany in 1879 and used it to study the human min, using a technique known as introspection.