Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
Behaviourist approach
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.
All behaviour is learned.
Classical conditioning
Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together- unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone.
Operant conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour are reinforcement (neg or pos) and punishment.
Ivan Pavlov (1927)
Pavlov showed how dogs can be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as food.
Pavlov was able to show how a neutral stimulus can elicit a learned response (conditioned) through association.
B.F Skinner (1953)
Theory (not study)
Learning is an active process where humans and animals operate in their environment.
Positive reinforcement- receiving a reward.
Negative reinforcement- avoid something unpleasant for a positive experience (handing work in on time)
Punishment- unpleasant consequence of a behaviour.
B.F Skinner study
Every time the rat activated a lever within the box it was rewarded with food, the animal would then continue to perform the behaviour.
Behaviourist approach evaluation-
Strengths.
Well-controlled research: Focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within a highly controlled lab setting, removing extraneous variables.
Real-world application: Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems which have been used in prisons and psych wards. This works by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens which can be exchanged for privileges.
Behaviourist approach evaluation-
Limitations.
Well-controlled research- they may have over simplified the learning process, they over looked human thought.
Environmental determinism- It sees as behaviour as conditioned by past experiences, this ignores any possible influence free will may have on behaviour.
ignores all influence of conscious- decision making processes on behaviour.
Ethical issues
Cognitive approach
How our mental processes affect behaviour.
This approach argues that internal mental processes can, and should, be studied scientifically.
Internal mental processes
Private operations of the mind such as perception and attention mediate between stimulus and response.
Schema
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.
Schema enable us to process lots of information quickly and this is useful as a sort of mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
The role of schema
Babies are born with a simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping.
Adults have developed mental representations of everything from the concept of psychology to a schema for what a typical zombie looks like.
Inference
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.
Theoretical and computer models.
One theoretical model ‘information processing approach’ suggests information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages. These include: input, storage and retrieval (multi-store model), which is based on the way that a computer functions.
Cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of those biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.
fMRI and PET scans enable scientists to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes.
Cognitive approach evaluations-
Strengths
Scientific methods- lab studies to produce reliable, objective data. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to come together to enhance the scientific basis of study.
Real-world application- cognitive psychology has made an important contribution to the field of AI and robots. Cognitive principles have also been applied to the treatment of depression and improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony.
Cognitive approach evaluations-
Limitations
Machine reductionism- The computer analogy has been criticised by many, it ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system, and how this may affect our ability to process information (anxiety on eyewitnesses).
Too abstract- Cognitive psych relies on the inference of mental processes, rather than direct observation of behaviour, sometimes appearing too theoretical in nature.
Biological approach
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function.
Neurochemical basis of behaviour
Neurochemistry is the action of chemicals in the brain. Most of our thought processes and behaviours rely on chemical transmission in the brain- which occurs using neurotransmitters. An imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain is a possible cause of mental illness.
Genetic basis of behaviour.
Psychological characteristics such as intelligence are inherited.
Twins studies
Biological approach
Twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological traits have a genetic basis. They analyse concordance rates.
If a characteristic is genetic we would expect all monozygotic twins to be concordant but not for dizygotic twins.
Genotype and phenotype.
Genotype is a person’s actual genetic makeup, whereas a phenotype is the way the genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics.
Phenotype in twins.
Despite having the same genes, the way identical twins’ genes are expressed is different. This means that many biological psychologists would accept, tat much of human behaviour depends upon an interaction between inherited factors (nature) and the environment (nurture).
Genes
The makeup chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism and psychological features.
Biological structure
An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing.
Neurochemistry
Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning.
Evolution, behaviour and natural selection.
Charles Darwin came up with the theory of natural selection- In nature this selection takes place naturally, no one decides, and the selection simply occurs because some traits give the possessor certain advantages. The possessor is more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on these traits.
Biological approach evaluations-
Strengths
Real-world application- Increased understanding of the neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with the use of psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders. The biological approach has promoted the treatment of clinical depression using antidepressant drugs that increase levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin at synapses in the brain.
Scientific methods- Uses a range of precise and highly objective methods- scanning techniques such as fMRIs and EEGS. Technology allows us to accurately measure physiological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias.
Biological approach evaluations-
Weaknesses.
Antidepressant drugs- not successful for everyone, researchers concluded the effects of antidepressants were mainly modest, this challenges the biological approach as it suggests that brain chemistry main not account for all cases of (e.g.) depression.
Biological determinism- it is determinist in that it sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control. Too simplistic and ignore the mediating effects of the environment.
Biopsychology- The nervous system
The nervous system is a specialised network of cells in the human body and our primary internal communication system using electrical signals.
Two main functions of the nervous system:
- to collect, process and respond to information in the environment.
-to co-ordinate the working of different organs and cells in the body.
Two subsystems of the nervous system:
Central nervous system (CNS)
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The central nervous system:
Made of the brain and spinal cord, is the origin of all complex commands and decisions:
-The brain: the centre of all conscious awareness. The outer layer (cerebral cortex) is only 3mm thick and only found in mammals. Our brain is what distinguishes our higher mental functions from those of other animals. The brain is divided into 2 hemispheres.
-The spinal cord: it is an extension of the brain, it passes messages to and from the brain and connects nerves to the PNS. It is also responsible for reflex actions.
The peripheral nervous system:
PNS transmits messages, via millions of neurons to and from the CNS. It is subdivided into the:
-Autonomic nervous system (ANS)- governs vital functions in the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, sexual arousal and stress.
-Somatic nervous system (SNS)- governs muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors.
What is the endocrine system?
One of the body’s major information systems instructs glands to release hormones directly int the bloodstream. These hormones are carried towards target organs in the body. Communicates via chemicals.
Glands and hormones.
Various glands in the body, such as the thyroid gland, produce hormones. Hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and affect any cell in the body that has a receptor for that particular hormone. The key endocrine gland is the pituitary gland located in the brain.
