Research Methods Flashcards
Case studies
A detailed study of a particular person/persons or event, usually yielding a large amount of information.
Content analysis
a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data.
Controlled observation
a type of observation where participants are observed in a lab, increasing control and reliability but decreasing ecological validity
correlation
the extent to which two variables are associated.
Court observation
a type of observation where the observer is hidden and therefore participants do not know they are being observed. While this does reduce demand characteristics, it can raise ethical issues around consent.
Experiment
A type of investigation wherein a hypothesis is tested by manipulation of an independent variable, in order to view its effect on the dependant variable.
field experiment
A type of experiment that is conducted in a real life setting, which reduces the amount of control over extraneous variables, however the ecological validity is improved
Interviews
a self report technique wherein participants are asked by an interviewer, which allows for flexibility in the information gathered
Laboratory experiment
A type of experiment that is conducted in a highly controlled environment, low chance of extraneous variables but low ecological validity.
Natural Experiment
A type of experiment in which an independent variable that already exists is tested in its natural environment, greatly reducing the control of extraneous variables. This type of experiment allows for investigation of variables that cannot ethically be created.
Naturalistic observation
A type of observation where participants are observed in their natural environment, increasing ecological validity but decreasing the amount of control over extraneous variables
Non-participant observation
A type of observation where the observer does not join the group under observation. This allows for higher objectivity but reduces the insight that could be achieved with a participant observation
Observation
a type of data collection wherein participants’ behavior is observed
Overt observation
a type of observation where the participants know they are under observation. This preserves informed consent but may increase demand characteristics.
participant observation
A type of observation where the observer joins the group under observation. This form of observation yields highly valuable qualitative information with insight, but can reduce the objectivity of the researcher.
Quasi experiment
Same as a Natural experiment
Questionnaires
A self-report technique wherein participants answer pre-decided questions, in the form of paper or electronically. This form. This form of self report allows for anonymity, reducing researcher bias.
Structured interviews
A form of interview wherein questions are pre set beforehand, with no flexibility. Usually, these consists of closed questions, and allows fir replicability
Unstructured interviews
A form of interview wherein questions may be set beforehand, but the interviewer is allowed flexibility in the form of a natural conversation.
Abstract
A part of a scientific report that aims to summarise the report
Aims
The objective or purpose of the experiment
Bias
An inclination to a certain position or thought. for example, in hostile attribution bias, hostility of negatively is more likely to be assumed from a neutral face.
Behavioral categories
An observational techniques wherein participants’ possible behaviors are separated into more specific components. This allows for operationalisation of the behavior. For example splitting aggression into categories of ‘swearing’ and ‘punching’.
Closed questions
A type of question that can only be answered with a limited number of answers, usually a “yes” or “no”
Concurrent validity
Occurs if a test is similar to an older test that already has well-established validity.
Confounding variable
A type of extraneous variable that is related to the independent variable in the experiment. For example, if you were testing the effects of anxiety on memory recall, the relative levels of sensitivity to anxiety-inducing stimuli would be a confounding variable.
Control variable
Any variables that are kept constant through the experiment to prevent their effects on the dependant variable
counterbalancing
To make half of the participant sample experience the different conditions of the experiment in one order, and the other half of the participants complete it in the opposite order.
Demand characteristics
Changes in the participants’ behavior to comply with the hypothesis of the researcher.
Dependant variable
The variable that changes in response to manipulation of the researcher, that is being measured for the experiment. For example, if you were testing the effects of anxiety on memory recall, memory recall would be the dependant variable.
Directional Hypothesis
A Hypothesis that specifies the direction of the relationship of the experiment e.g. coffee will have a positive effect on the reaction time of participants
Ecological Validity
How well results from a test can be applied to real life
Event Sampling
An observational technique wherein an observer records every time a particular behavior or “event” occurs, usually in the form of a tally chart
Extraneous variable
Variables other than independent variable that have an affect on the dependant variable. For example, if you were testing the effects of anxiety on memory recall, the intelligence levels of the participants could be extraneous variables.
Face Validity
if a test appears to be valid at first appearances, in spite of how well it works in a real world scenario.
Falsifiability
The quality of being able to be proven wrong
Generalisation
To attribute information from a sample to the rest of the population
Hypothesis
The prediction of the outcome of the experiment.
Independent groups
An experimental design wherein different participants are involved in different conditions of the experiment. For example, using two different groups of people to test the effect of music on memory recall, with one group memorising during music playing and the other silence.
Independent Variable
The variable that is manipulated by the researcher to observe its effects on the dependant variable.
Inter observer reliability
Multiple investigations gather information separately during an observation and compare their data for similarity after.
Investigation effects
Unconscious changes in the investigators behavior to comply with the hypothesis of the investigation
Matched pairs design
An experimental design wherein participants in different conditions of the experiment are matched on certain variables to reduce the effect of participant variables.
Non directional Hypothesis
A hypothesis that does not specify the direction of the relationship of the experiment
Objectivity
Empirical; something that is not influenced by personal feelings
Open questions
A type of question that requires answers that are longer than ‘yes’ or ‘no’
Operationalisation (of variables)
To clearly state and objectivity a variable. For example Instead of measuring ‘aggression’, researchers would convert it into observable categories like ‘punching’ and ‘kicking’.
Opportunity sampling
a sampling technique that involves obtaining a sample via anyone that is available from the population at the time of collecting the sample. For example, handing questionnaires out to people outside a shopping mall
Paradigm
a basic concept; a well accepted core belief.
Paradigm Shift
When previously accepted core concepts in a science are changed, usually due to the emergence of new evidence.
Peer review
The assessment of work by other people with similar levels of expertise in that field, to provide an unbiased expert opinion of said work.
Pilot Studies
Preliminary/trial studies carried out to ensure the clarity of the study itself. For example, using a pilot questionnaire on a sample of people that give feedback on the clarity of questions.
Population
The group represented by a sample
Random allocation
To allocate participants to seperate conditions using some sort of randomisation technique. For example, using a computer to randomly generate groups fo condition A and B.
Random sampling
A sampling technique that involves randomly generating participants from the population by any randomisation technique.
Reliability
Essentially replicability; the extent to which the test can be repeated and gather similar results
Repeated measures
An experimental design wherein the same participants undergo all the conditions of the experiment
Replicability
How easily a test can be repeated
sample
A smaller group that aims to be representative of the population
Standardisation
Keeping the experimental methods as identical as possible
Stratified sampling
A sampling technique that involves establishing sub-groups (strata) within the population investigated and picking participants to create a representative sample
Systematic sampling
A sampling technuque that involves establishing a method to pick participants evenly distributed through the population.
Temporal Validity
How well results form a test can be applied across time periods
test-retest reliability
Completing a test multiple times and comapring the scores for similarity
Time sampling
An observational technique where an observer only records specific behaviors in specific time intervals
Validity
Truthfulness;the extent to which a test measures what it aims to measure, i.e. uncontrolled extraneous variables reduce validity because they affect what is supposed to be measured
Volunteer sampling
A sampling technique that involves using participants that volunteer to take part in the study, provided they meet the inclusion criteria.
Nominal
A level of measurement thats refers to variables that can be counted in whole numbers, to indicate frequency
Ordinal
A level of measurements that refers to variables that can be placed on a scale of relative importance i.e. i order.
Thematic analysis
A type of data analysis that aims to identify, report and analyse recurring concepts.
