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Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Self-report Technique

A

A method where people state or explain their own thoughts/feelings that relate to a given topic

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2
Q

Social-desirability bias

A

Participants fail to report social undesirable behaviours to appear more likeable

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3
Q

Demand Characteristics

A

Participants subconsciously change answers after forming idea of what experiment may be about

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4
Q

Response Bias

A

Responses are biased due to another external factor

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5
Q

Acquiescence bias

A

Individuals are likely to agree with something regardless of how they feel, and agree with the survey questions rather than own thoughts

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6
Q

Qualitative data

A

Language based data collection expressed through words, non-numerical

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7
Q

Quantitative data

A

Numerical data that can be statistically analysed

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8
Q

Open questions

A

Can add detail to it
More information can be given
Cannot be compared easily

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9
Q

Closed questions

A

Comparable data
Can’t easily find out extra information, have to follow a script

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10
Q

Interviews

A

Effort from researcher
Can see the participant and gauge responses

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11
Q

Structured interview

A

Can be replicated
Standardised, reduced difference between interviewers
Can’t deviate from the topic or explain questions: limits amount of data collected

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12
Q

Unstructured interview

A

More flexible
Follow up points as they arise
Unexpected information
Interviewer bias
Not easy to analyse the data given
Irrelevant information may be given
Lying for sake of being liked: however, rapport should be built so there are truthful responses given

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13
Q

Semi-structured interview

A

Follow up questions can be asked
Not easy to compare the data given as different questions asked
Some data can be compared on the questions in common between interviewees

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14
Q

Questionnaires

A

Cost effective
Large amounts of data collected
Researcher doesn’t need to be present (effort involved is reduced)
Straightforward to analyse
Statistical analysis, comparisons can be made easily
Graphs and charts
May not always be truthful, want to present in positive light (underestimating frequency, for example)

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15
Q

Likert Scale

A

Respondent indicates agreement with a statement using a scale ranging from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree, for example.

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16
Q

Rating Scale

A

Works in a similar way, but participants identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about a topic (e.g entertaining to not at all entertaining

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17
Q

Fixed-choice option

A

Includes a list of possible options, and the respondents indicate which of these options apply to them

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18
Q

Interview Schedule

A

The list of questions that the interviewer wants to cover, and is standardised to avoid interviewer bias

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19
Q

Interview bias

A

The expectations or opinions of the interviewer interferes with the judgment of the interviewee

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20
Q

Leading question

A

Question that guides a respondent to a particular answer (e.g ‘Is it obvious that…’)

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21
Q

Emotive Language

A

Emotive words stir a response in people. Need to be avoided, and neutral words should be used instead of accusing people of things, as this can affect the responses of the participant

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22
Q

Double-Barreled questions

A

Two questions in one, participants may agree with one half of the question, and not with the other.

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23
Q

Randomisation

A

Researchers can reduce experimenter effects by using random chance in the design of their experiments.
E.g the order in which words are presented in a memory test are set by chance, rather than the experimenters choice

24
Q

Standardisation

A

As far as practically possible, researchers try to ensure all participants have the same experience in the experiment (E.g same place, same time, same test equipment, same interviewer, same questions, same measures of behaviour)
Makes a measure of behaviour RELIABLE (consistent)

25
Q

Reliability

A

A measure of whether something stays the same, i.e. is consistent. The results of psychological investigations are said to be reliable if they are similar each time they are carried out using the same design, procedures and measurements

26
Q

Validity

A

Whether a measure actually measures what it claims to be measuring, and is true or legitimate

27
Q

Independent groups/measures

A

Participants are allocated to either one group or another, and are exposed to different experimental conditions

28
Q

Repeated measures

A

The same subjects participate in all conditions of the independent variable

29
Q

Matched pairs

A

Overcomes issue of participant variables, matching is done according to a relevant characteristic which might affect behaviour in the study, matches someone in the other condition. Matches may be based on age, gender, skill level, personality, educational attainment etc.

30
Q

Evaluation of matched pairs

A

Strengths:
-Can reduce participant variables in an independent groups design

Limitations:
-Matching will never be perfect, even identical twins have differences in attitudes and behaviours
-Process of matching is time consuming
-Pre-testing becomes necessary
-May not be possible within budget

31
Q

Random allocation

A

Rather than the researcher deciding who goes in which groups, participants are allocated to each group by random chance

32
Q

Researcher bias

A

The beliefs or expectations of the researcher influence the research design or data collection process. Can also be caused by leading questions or emotive language

33
Q

Counterbalancing

A

-Improvement to be made to repeated measures design
-Half participants do condition A, followed by B.
-Other half do condition B followed by A, and so distribues order effects (tiredness, practice) across both conditions

34
Q

Evaluation of random allocation

A

-Can’t guarantee removal of confounding variables
-Random allocation removes researcher bias from independent measures, but participants in each condition may still be different by chance

35
Q

Evaluation of Counterbalancing

A

-Can’t guarantee removal of confounding variables
-Counterbalancing (ABBA), shares out the effect of fatigue or practice across both conditions
-But they are not removed from the experiment

36
Q

What is discrete data and how it is presented?

A

If data is made of whole numbers that are counted and not measured, e.g 3 children, 100 workers.
Presented using a bar chart

37
Q

What is continuous data and how is it presented?

A

If data is measurable and can take on any value, e.g 3.25kg
Presented through histograms or line graphs

38
Q

Positively skewed graph

A

Most scores are at the left of the graph
Long tail on the right
Mode = at the highest point of the peak
Median = next highest
Mean = dragged along to the right
E.g a difficult test in which most students get low marks, and a few get very high marks.

39
Q

Negatively skewed graph

A

Most distribution is at the right of the graph
Long tail on the left
Mode = at the highest point of the peak
Median = next
Mean = dragged along to the left
E.g an easy test in which most students get high marks and a few students get very low marks

40
Q

Bar charts

A

A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars
Used when data is divided into categories (discrete data)
Bars do not touch, separated to show a difference in conditions

41
Q

Histograms

A

A type of graph which shows frequency but, unlike a bar chart, the area of the bars (not just the height) represents frequency.
The x axis must start at a true zero, and the scale is continuous
Bars are touching, showing continuous data rather than discrete

42
Q

Scattergrams

A

A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between covariables in a correlational analysis
Do not depict differences but instead depict correlations and associations between co-variables

43
Q

Line graphs

A

Represent continuous data
Points are connected with lines to show change in value

44
Q

What is content analysis?

A

A type of observational research technique in which people are studied indirectly via the communications they produce.
It is a technique for systematically analysing qualitative information.
It involves drawing up coding categories and counting how often these categories occur.
It converts qualitative data into quantitative data

45
Q

How is content analysis carried out?

A

Primary data (unstructured interviews, open questions, unstructured observations)

Secondary data (newspapers, magazines, television adverts, movies, facebook posts, journals texts and graffiti)

46
Q

Thematic analysis

A

Similar to a content analysis, the material to be analysed might be any qualitative primary data such as unstructured interview transcripts or secondary data, e.g: diary, TV advertisements, or interview transcripts.
Themes identified are likely to be more descriptive than the coding units in a content analysis.
The themes are not turned into quantitative data.
Once the researcher is satisfied that the themes they have developed cover most aspects of the data adequately, they may review other, similar data to test the validity of these themes.
They may then write up a final report, typically using quotes from the data to illustrate each theme.

47
Q

Strengths of Content/Thematic analysis

A

Content/Thematic analysis are both easy techniques to use and help to summarise qualitative information.
They get around ethical issues of conducting research by using secondary data already in the public domain, so consent can be assumed.
Content analysis allows a statistical analysis to be conducted if required since there is quantitative data as a result of the procedure.

48
Q

Limitations of content/thematic analysis

A

Content/Thematic analysis merely summarise and describe behaviour; they cannot attribute a cause to that behaviour.

Both Content/Thematic analysis can suffer from subjectivity: when identifying codes/themes the researcher might impose his/her ideas on the content and there is the risk that opinions and motivations are attributed incorrectly.

Content analysis: if the coding units are clearly defined and not open to interpretation, this can be a reliable way of analysing qualitative information as the codes can be applied in the same way over time and with different researchers.

49
Q

What are the four kinds of experiment?

A

Lab, field, natural and quasi

50
Q

Operationalisation

A

How a variable is clearly defined by the researcher, and defining concepts

51
Q

Features of a lab experiment

A
  • Takes place in a controlled environment
  • IV is controlled/manipulated by researchers
  • DV is measured
52
Q

Features of a field experiment

A
  • Takes place in a natural environment
  • IV controlled/manipulated by researchers
  • DV is measured
53
Q

Features of a natural experiment

A
  • IV is a natural or real world even or condition
  • NOT manipulated by researchers
  • DV is measured

Note: a natural experiment could take place in a lab, but it is the naturally occuring iV that makes it nature, NOT the environment where participants are being tested

54
Q

Features of a quasi-experiment

A
  • IV is pre existing characteristic (not controlled by researchers)
  • DV is measured
55
Q

Evaluations of lab and field experiments

A
  • Lab and field experiments have control over the IV, greater internal validity
  • The lab has the greatest degree of control, a field experiment may be affected by random events outside of the researchers control.
56
Q

Evaluation of quasi and natural experiments

A
  • Natural and quasi experiments lack control over the IV BUT they are useful, enabling research into variables which for practical or ethical reasons could not be done in a field/lab experiment
    -Eg, would not be practical to invent new technologies, but can compare the behaviour of those who have mobiles with those that don’t.

Psychology (3 decks)

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