Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
What is objectivity?
Based on facts and (quantitative) data
Not influenced by personal opinion or feelings
What is the empirical method?
Using observable methods, usually lab-based studies, to draw conclusions leading to theories
What are controlled conditions?
In an experiment, when all variables other than the IV are kept constant so as not affect the DV
What are standardised instructions?
When participants are given the same instructions to avoid investigator effects
What is replicability?
When a study can be repeated (e.g. to test for the reliability of findings).
What is introspection? How did Wundt conduct it?
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
Wundt asked participants to notice and record their mental responses to a stimuli (such as a metronome) in controlled conditions, and asked them to write it down. He analysed the responses to discover the ‘structure of the mind’
What is structualism?
The attempt to understand the structure and characteristics of the mind
What did Wundt contribute to psychology?
First Psychology textbook and lab
More than just philosophy/theory about the mind
Standardised instructions and controlled conditions = replicable
His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes e.g. by cognitive psychologists.
What are some criticisms of Wundt and Behaviourism?
Introspection provides subjective data. This is so variable that it is impossible to establish general laws/principles.
Internal mental processes cannot be empirically studied. Psychology should focus on observable phenomenon only which can be objectively measured.
What does behaviourism (1900s) contribute to psychology?
Questioned value of introspection, proposed using objective studies of things that can be observed in research, so that general laws could be established
What does the cognitive approach (1950s) contribute to psychology?
Likened mind to computer, tested predictions about memory and attention using experiments, ensured study of mind was scientific and legitimate
What does the biological approach (1980s) contribute to psychology?
Investigate physiological processes using technological advances, for example brain scanning to see live activity, and also genetic testing to see the correlation between genes and behaviour.
What does cognitive neuroscience (21st C) contribute to psychology?
Brings together the cognitive and biological approaches, investigates how biological structures influence mental states
What are the three key assumptions of Behaviourism?
-Born a blank slate, learn behaviour through experience. Determined by environment (nurture rather than nature)
-Should only study behaviour that can be observed and measured, focus on lab experiments
-Basic processes that govern learning are same in all species, acceptable to use animals in lab experiments
What two key kinds of learning did behaviourists identify?
Classical and operant conditioning
What is classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an existing involuntary reflex response is associated with a new stimulus, learning to associate two stimuli after repeated
What is operant conditioning?
New voluntary behaviour is associated with a consequence - reinforcement makes the behaviour more likely to occur, while punishment makes it less likely to occur
What is generalisation?
When a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus produces behaviour identical to the conditioned response
What is extinction?
The process of the conditioned response disappearing when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
What is spontaneous recovery?
The reappearance of the conditioned response following extinction after a period of absence of the conditioned stimulus or any other triggers
What is the unconditioned stimulus?
A stimulus which produces a natural, unlearnt behavioural response
What is the unconditioned response?
A response which occurs naturally without learning
What is the neutral stimulus?
Any environmental stimulus which does not naturally produce a behavioural response
What is the conditioned stimulus?
A stimulus which has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus so that it now produces the same response
What assumptions does social learning theory share with behaviourism?
Behaviour is shaped through learning or experience (nurture)
Learning occurs directly through classical and operant conditioning
What assumptions are held by social learning theory?
People also learn indirectly through observation, identification, modelling, and vicarious reinforcement in a social context.
Cognitive processes mediate between stimuli & responses; in other words, we think about the behaviour we learn before we perform it.
What is social learning theory?
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
What is imitation?
Copying the behaviour of others
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
What is modelling (SLT)?
From the observers perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From role models perspective, modelling is precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
What is identification?
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.
What is a role model?
A person who serves as an example by influencing others
What is attention (SLT)
Extent to which we notice certain behaviours
What is retention (SLT)?
How well the behaviour is remembered, memorised
What is motor reproduction (SLT)?
Ability to perform the behaviour, practise it themselves
What is motivation (SLT)?
Will to perform behaviour, often determined by whether behaviour was rewarded or punished
What is reciprocal determinism?
A person’s behaviour both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment
What are mirror neurons?
Neurons that fire whilst observing an action being performed (not just whilst performing an action)
What are the assumptions of the cognitive approach?
Cognitive (mental) processes mediate between stimulus and response and should be studied scientifically.
Although cognitive processes such as. memory, perception, reasoning are internal processes and cannot be directly observed, they can be studied indirectly through making inferences based on observable behaviour in experiments.
We can use findings from these experiments to create theoretical and computer models that help us to understand the mind.
What is schema?
Mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing
Developed from experience, shape our experience of the world
What are theoretical and computer models used for, and give an example.
Models help to understand internal mental processes
Multistore model suggest that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages: input, storage, retrieval
What are inferences? Give an example
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
Baddeley dual task study, evidence to infer that we have different, limited-capacity STM stores that process different types of working memory
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of the biological basis of mental processes
Study of the neurological structures and processes that underpin cognitive processes
What techniques does cognitive neuroscience use?
Brain scans/imaging (fMRI, PET)
Real world applications of cognitive neuroscience
Identifying autism early on, OCD brain activity levels
What are the assumptions of the biological approach?
All thoughts, feelings and behaviours ultimately have a physiological basis.
To understand human behaviour, we have to look to biological structures and processes; e.g. genes , brain structure, brain chemistry (neurotransmitters), hormones .
What is the background of the biological approach?
The nature vs nurture debate highlights a key debate in psychology over the relative influence of genetics over behaviour; an extreme biological position assumes that behaviour is solely due to nature.
What does the biological approach argue the role of genetics is in relation to OCD?
The biological approach emphasises the role of inherited genes in shaping behaviour. Research into candidate genes aims to identify the specific genes that create a vulnerability for disorders such as OCD. Disorders such as OCD are recognised as being polygenic (multiple genes combine to cause the disorder) and aetiologically heterogeneous (different combinations of genes cause the disorder in different people).
How do twin studies for OCD support the biological approach?
Twin studies can be used to support a genetic explanation for OCD by showing around double the concordance rate for identical ( MZ ) twins, who share 100% of their genes compared to non-identical ( DZ ) twins who share 50% of their genes.
What neurological factors does the biological approach take into account? Use OCD as an example
The biological approach also recognises the role of brain physiology and neurochemistry; for example, according to the biological approach, abnormal functioning of specific brain regions such as the orbitofrontal cortex and an imbalance of levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin are seen as key factors contributing to the development of OCD. Therefore, treatments developed by the biological approach aim to make physiological changes, in order to change behaviour: e.g the main treatment for OCD is SSRIs which work by blocking reuptake channels so serotonin cannot be taken back up by the presynaptic neuron from the synapse, and so this means that more serotonin is taken in by receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron
What is genotype?
The genetic configuration of an individual coded in their chromosomes and fixed at conception
What is phenotype?
The observable expression of an individual determined by the combined effects of genes and environment
What is concordance rate?
A measure of similarity (measured as a %) between two individuals (or sets of individuals) for a given trais
What are identical and non identical twins known as scientifically?
Identical: MZ
Non-identical: DZ
If MZ twins have a higher concordance rate for a psychological disorder such as OCD compared to DZ twins, this suggests a genetic basis for that characteristic. Why?
As MZ twins have same genotype, share 100% of genes, whereas DZ twins only share 50% of their genetics, and so a higher concordance rate for behaviour suggests role of genetics
What is the argument for nature vs nurture in concordance rates?
MZ twins treated in more similar ways as identical, people likely to give them similar treatment, whereas DZ twins are not identical, and so will have different treatment
What type of experiments are twin and adoption studies? Explain your answer.
Quasi, as already in groups, can’t manipulate independent variable
What is evolutionary psychology?
A biological approach which views psychological behaviours as adaptations, i.e. products of natural selection that have helped our survival and development as a species at different points in our evolutionary development
What is evolution?
A change in allele frequencies over time
What is Darwin’s theory of natural selection?
Genetic variation exists between individuals in a population.
Some individuals will be more likely to survive (e.g. by being better at fighting disease) than others.
Individuals that are better at surviving than others have a selective advantage
Individuals with a selective advantage are more likely to survive to reproduce than others.
This means that the genes of an individual with a selective advantage are more likely to be passed onto offspring than the genes of an individual without a selective advantage
Individuals with a selective advantage are more likely to pass on their beneficial alleles than other individuals.
The next generation is more likely to have alleles that provide a selective advantage than alleles that do not.
This generation is also more likely to survive to reproduce and pass on their genes.
This causes the alleles that provide a selective advantage to increase in frequency in the population.
What is biological preparedness?
Fight or flight response hard wired into brains to enable survival (amygdala), biological preparedness to be scared of things that can harm us, hence common phobias (spiders, snakes, the dark)
