Psychopathology Flashcards
Define deviation from social norms
Abnormal behaviour is classified in this way as any behaviour that goes against societal expectations about how to and not to behave. Often these social
expectations are rooted in a desire to make society more pleasant- for example, being polite
Describe the emotional, behavioural and cognitive characteristics of depression
Emotional- 5 symptoms are required for a diagnosis of major depressive disorder, these include feelings of intense sadness and often worthlessness. But, there are some that report feelings of anger.
Behavioural- Depressed individuals experience either increased or reduced levels in activity. Sleeping hours may be reduced, whereas others might experience agitation and restlessness. Appetite is also affected with some experiencing diminished appetite and others increased appetite.
Cognitive- Negative thoughts cause the negative emotions associated with depression.
These thoughts are irrational and include negative expectations and thoughts of
worthlessness. In some cases these thoughts can be self-fulfilling- belief that you’ll fail an exam leads to reduced studying that causes failure
How are phobias initiated through classical
conditioning?
A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (that causes fear) so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus to produce a conditioned
response- of fear.
Describe systematic desensitisation.
This is a treatment for phobias that attempts to replace the association between fear and the phobic stimulus with an association between relaxation and the phobic stimulus. Patients are exposed to scenarios that progressively cause more anxiety than the last stage in their hierarchy.
Why is systematic desensitisation preferred to
flooding?
This is because flooding is not a viable form of treatment for all phobic individuals, no matter how effective it is, this is because it can be a highly traumatic form of treatment. Although patients are aware of this before beginning treatment, many find themselves unable to complete the treatment, limiting its overall effectiveness at treating phobias
Describe the diathesis-stress model.
The diathesis stress model suggests that certain genes create a vulnerability for
mental disorders, and that after an activating event or trauma, mental disorders develop in these individuals.
What is a negative triad?
This is a cognitive approach to understanding depression, focusing on how expectations (schema) about the self, world and future lead to depression.
Define failure to function adequately.
Abnormality is defined in this way as an inability to cope with everyday life, especially if this is causing the individual or others around them distress. In some
instances, the individual may not be aware that their behaviour is causing distress to others, like if they are schizophrenic.
How does the SLT explain phobias?
The social learning theory suggests that phobias may be acquired through modelling the behaviour of others. If a child sees an adult react fearfully to a dog, they are likely to imitate the behaviour themself because the behaviour is rewarding- it gets them attention.
Describe the emotional, behavioural and cognitive
characteristics of OCD.
Emotional- Feelings of anxiety and shame are associated with both the obsessions and the compulsions, as they are aware that their behaviour is excessive.
Behavioural- Compulsive behaviours are carried out the alleviate the anxiety caused by obsessions. These are repetitive and unconcealed, and often not
connected in any way with the object of their obsession. Some compulsions are carried out in the absence of an obsession.
Cognitive- Obsessions are recurrent, intrusive thoughts that may be irrational and embarrassing. The individual is often aware that their obsession is irrational. Common obsessional themes involve germs.
How are phobias maintained by operant
conditioning?
If a behaviour produces a favourable outcome, it is likely to be repeated- in the case of phobic individuals, avoidance of their phobic stimulus reduces anxiety, so they are likely to continue to avoid it. This is an example of negative reinforcement.
How does the cognitive theory explain depression?
Depression is due to irrational thinking, and cognitions that are skewed towards negative thoughts
Define statistical infrequency
Abnormality is defined in this way as behaviour which is extremely rare, or as characteristics not displayed by many people.
How does the biological theory explain OCD?
OCD is caused by abnormal levels of dopamine and serotonin, and a non-functioning worry circuit in which signals about potentially worrying things from the OFC are not suppressed by the caudate nucleus.
Describe the emotional, behavioural and cognitive
characteristics of phobias.
Emotional- Anxiety is the primary emotion associated with phobic disorders, and is
triggered by the presence of the phobic stimulus. The level of anxiety caused by the stimulus is often out of proportion to the actual threat posed by it.
Behavioural- Phobic individuals often avoid all situations that could potentially involve their phobic stimulus. But the response of freezing in the face of their stimulus is also common. Phobias interfere with the individual’s daily life, distinguishing phobias from
normal fears.
Cognitive- The thoughts of a phobic individual are irrational and the anxiety they cause is not reduced by reasoning. The individual is aware that their thoughts are irrational, distinguishing between phobias and disorders like schizophrenia
How is depression treated using the cognitive approach?
It’s treated using CBT which is a combination of cognitive therapy (changing maladaptive thoughts and beliefs) and behavioural therapy (a way of changing behaviour in response to those thoughts and beliefs).
Briefly describe the case of Little Albert.
In this study by Watson and Rayner (1920) a fear of fluffy white objects was conditioned in young baby. Initially, the white objects began as a neutral stimulus (NS), garnering no response from the baby. An unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
banging a steel rod by the baby’s ear produces an unconditioned response (UCR) of fear in the baby. Through pairing the NS and the UCS, a conditioned response of fear was produced by the baby, the NS became the conditioned stimulus and produced a fear response even in the absence of the UCS.
How is OCD treated using the biological approach?
This involves the treatment of mental disorders by administering drugs to reduce
the symptoms of the disorder. This involves using SSRIs to increase the levels of serotonin in the body
Define deviation from the ideal mental health.
It was recognised by Jahoda, that when assessing for physical illnesses, we look for the absence of physical health. Jahoda concluded that the same should be done for mental illnesses. As a result, abnormality is defined in this way as displaying the absence of the ideal mental health criteria set by Jahoda
Why is the deviation from ideal health definition
criticised?
The issue with this definition is that the criteria it is founded on is unrealistic, it is very unlikely that any one individual will display all of the traits suggested by Jahoda all of the time.
What is schema?
mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing
Developed from experience, shape our experience of the world
Beck: negative self schema lead to depression
Evaluate statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality
Strengths:
Real world application
-Used in clinical practice
-Assess severity of symptoms, diagnosis
-Example: beck depression inventory
Limitations:
Unusual characteristics can be positive
-For example, people with high IQ (above 130) are not seen as abnormal, but people below 70 are
-Being at one end of the spectrum does not make someone abnormal
-Desirable characteristics are wanted rather than rejected as abnormal
Evaluate deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality
Strengths:
Real world application
-Used in clinical practise
-Key characteristic of APD is failure to conform culturally, acceptable, ethical behaviour
-Play a part in schizotypical personality disorder, term ‘strange’ used to characterise people with disorder
Limitations:
Cultural/Situational relativism:
-Variable
-Person from one culture may label someone else from another group as abnormal, using their own standards
-Example: Hearing voices is norm in some cultures, yet abnormality in UK
-Within cultures, vary through situations, aggression and deception in family life unacceptable compared to business
Human Rights Abuses
-Nymphomania, drapetomania
-Can be used for control, limit self expression
Evaluate failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality
Strengths:
Represents threshold for help
-Most people have symptoms of mental disorders to some degree at some time
-Point at which fail to function adequately, seek help or referred for help
-Targeted to those that need it most
Limitations
Discrimination and social control
-Label non-standard lifestyles as abnormal, hard to say when people are really failing to function, or have chosen to deviate from the norms
-Not having permanent address or job may seem like failing to function, yet some people choose to live off-grid
-Freedom of choice may be restricted
May not be abnormal
-Periods when all people fail to cope for some time, such as bereavement
-Unfair to label people, may cause future problems
-However, label may help some people, not any less real just because temporary: some people need professional help for things like bereavement
Evaluate deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality
Strengths:
Comprehensive definition
-Range of criteria for distinguishing mental health from mental disorder
-Mental health can be discussed meaningfully, range of professionals for different criteria
-Checklist can check self against and others.
Limitations:
May be culture bound
-Not applicable
-Located within US and Europe
-Variation on value of personal independence
-Collectivist vs Individualist cultures
Extremely High Standards
-Nobody achieves all at same time, hard to keep up for period of time, may be disheartening
-However, comprehensive so may be good to work towards, practical value
What were the criteria for deviation from mental health set out by Marie Jahoda?
Self-attitudes: having high self-esteem and a strong sense of identity.
Personal growth and self-actualisation: the extent to which a person develops their full capabilities.
Integration: such as being able to cope with stressful situations.
Autonomy: being independent and self-regulating.
Having an accurate perception of reality.
Mastery of the environment: including the ability to love, function at work and in interpersonal relationships, adjust to new situations and solve problems.
Evaluate the behavioural approach to phobias
Strengths:
Real world application
-Exposure therapies, systematic desensitisation
-Two process model, important in explaning why people with phobias benefit from exposure
Phobias and Traumatic Experiences
-Two process model evidence for link between experiences and phobias
-Little Albert study
-Ad De Jongh (2006), 73% of people with fear of dental treatment had experienced traumatic experience, control group only 21% experienced traumatic event
-HOWEVER not all phobias occur after negative experience: for example, fear of snakes despite not having experience with one, and not all traumatic experiences lead to phobias
Limitations:
Cognitive Aspects of Phobias
-Behavioural explanations explain behaviour, and key behaviour is avoidance of phobic stimulus
-However, significant cognitive component, irrational beliefs held about phobic stimulus
-Two process model explains avoidance behaviour but not adequate for phobic cognitions
Learning and Evolution
-Behavioural model provides credible individual explanations
-Yet there are more general aspects to phobias, explained by evolutionary theory, acquire phobias that presented danger in past (Preparedness)
Evaluate systematic desensitisation as a behavioural approach to treating phobias
Strengths:
Evidence of Effectiveness:
-Gilroy et al (2003) followed up 42 people who had SD for spider phobia in three 45 minute sessions
-At three and 33 months, SD group less fearful than control group treated by relaxation without exposure
People with learning disabilities:
-Some requiring treatment may have learning disability, alternatives unsuitable
-Often struggle with cognitive therapy that need rational thought, confused and distressed by flooding
-Therefore SD suitable
SD in virtual reality
-Exposure through VR can avoid dangerous settings, such as heights, and cost-effective as don’t need to leave consulting room
-HOWEVER, may be less effective as lacks realism
Evaluate flooding as a behavioural approach to treating phobias
Strengths:
Cost effective
-Clinically effective, not expensive
-Can work in as little as one session as opposed to 10 or more SD sessions for same result. Even longer sessions are are cost effective
-More people treated at same cost for one person with SD
Limitations
Traumatic
-Tremendous anxiety
-Schumacher et al found participants and therapists rated flooding as much more stressful than SD
-Ethical issues, need informed consent
-Attrition rates high, many people drop out
Symptom Substitution
-Mask symptoms rather than tackling underlying causes
-Woman with phobia of death treated with flooding, fear declined, but fear of criticism worsened
-HOWEVER, only evidence is in case studies, so cannot generalise to other phobias
Evaluate Beck’s negative triad as a cognitive approach to explaining depression
Strengths:
Research Support
-Cognitive vulnerability refers to ways of thinking, may predispose a person to becoming depressed
-Clark and Aaron Beck (1999) concluded cognitive vulnerabilities more common in depressed people, preceded depression
-Confirmed in prospective study by Cohen et al (2019), tracked 473 adolecents, regularly measured cognitive vulnerability, predicted later depression
Real World Application
-Applications in screening, treatment for depression
-Cohen et al concluded that assessing cognitive vulnerability allows screening and identification of young people who may later develop depression
-Also applied in CBT, alters cognition that makes people vulnerable to depression
Limitation
Partial explanation
-Some aspects aren’t well explained by cognitive explanations, such as anger, hallucinations and delusions
Evaluate Ellis’s ABC model as a cognitive approach to explaining depression
Strengths
Real world application
-REBT, argue with depressed person, therapist can alter irrational beliefs making them unhappy
-Some evidence that can change negative beliefs and relieve the depression symptoms
Limitations
Reactive and endogenous depression
-Only explains reactive
-Depression often triggered by life events, yet many cases not traceable to life events, no obvious cause at what leads to depression at particular time
Ethical issues
-Located responsibility for depression on depressed person, blaming them
-HOWEVER, when used appropriately and sensitively, application of ABC model in REBT can help some people
What do the letters stand for in Ellis’s ABC Model
A: activating event
B: beliefs
C: consequences
What are the parts of Beck’s negative triad?
Negative view of the world
Negative view of the future
Negative view of the self
Evaluate the cognitive approach to treating depression
