Research Methods Flashcards
Variable
Any factor that can vary/change within an investigation
Dependent Variable
The variable that is measured
Independent Variable
An aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated (changed), so the effect on the dependent variable can be measured
Alternative hypothesis
A clear, precise, and testable statement that states the relationship between variables to be investigated
Null hypothesis
Predict there will be no difference or association between variables that you are studying
Directional hypothesis
States the difference or relationship between 2 conditions. Say positive/negative if looking for relationship
(Alternative hypothesis)
Non-directional hypothesis
There will be a difference between 2 conditions
(Alternative hypothesis)
Extraneous Variable
Something that affects all groups in an experiment equally
e.g. anyone in a study could get bored
Cofounding Variable
Affects one group more than the other e.g. studying one group in the afternoon and the other in the morning, one group may do better than that other
Demand characteristics
Participants find out the experiments intentions. Prevention: Single-blind, Double-blind, Experimental realism, Counterbalancing, Pilot studiesI
Investigator effects
Conscious or unconscious clues the investigator may give that leads to demand characteristics. Prevention: Standardised instructions
Single-Blind
The participants are unaware of the research aims and which condition they are receiving
Double-Blind
Neither the participant or researcher are aware of the aim
Experimental Realism
Researcher makes the task sufficiently engaging,, so the participant pays attention to the task and not the observation
Representative of real life situations
Counterbalancing
Half the participants in a repeated measures design do A then B and some do B then A
Order effects can be controlled for
Standardised Instructions
Written instructions that are read out loud to each participant in exactly the same way (Verbatim)
Must include a check to make sure participants understood
Standardised Procedure
Set of procedures written and followed, so each participant experiences the same procedure
Pilot Studies
Small-scale study that is conducted before a large-scale study to remove any problems with the design
Lab Experiment
In a controlled environment,
Lacks real world application,
Extraneous variables are controlled,
High internal validity/Low external validity
Field Experiments
In a natural environment but IV is manipulated b researcher and DV is measured, most participants unaware of being in the study so lacks informed consent,
Less control of extraneous variables than Lab, High ecological validity due to lack of demand characteristics,
Low internal validity/High external validity
Natural Experiment
Pre-existing IV in a condition that is unethical to repeat (naturally occurring),
Allows for research into an area where IV cannot be manipulated,
High external validity,
Cannot demonstrate cause and effect because cannot be repeated and often studied on an individual or small group,
Low internal validity/High external validity
Quasi Experiment
IV that is natural. A pre-existing difference between people (gender, age…),
Cannot demonstrate cause and effect because IV is not directly manipulated,
Carried out under controlled conditions so shares strengths with Lab,
High internal validity or Low (participant variables)/Low external validity
Validity
The accuracy of a theory or study
Internal Validity
Whether the study measures what it claims to
External Validity
The extent to which a study reflects real life
Ecological Validity
The extent to which a study’s setting/task reflects real life
Generalisablility
Extent to which the sample of a study reflects the target population
Temporal Validity
Extent to which the study reflects today’s society
Mundane Realism
If the task can be considered a task someone would normally complete
e.g. helping and old person carry something heavy
Reliability
How consistent a study is
Economic Implications
The effect that psychological research has on the economy
Repeated Measures
Participants take part in all conditions,
Participants may show demand characteristics,
No participant variables/Less participants needed than in an independant
Independent Measures
Participants take party in one condition of an experiment,
Avoids order effects,
Cannot control participant variables e.g. abilities of participants
Matched Pairs
Participants are put into pairs based on key features (potential extraneous variables) and one takes part in condition A , whilst the other in condition B,
Avoids order effects/Fewer demand characteristics,
Time consuming and difficult to find exact pairs
How to deal with investigator effect
Standardised instructions
Random Sampling
Every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen
Random Sampling strengths
Free from researcher bias,
More likely to produce a representative sample than opportunity
Random sampling weaknesses
Difficult and time consuming
Could produce unrepresentative data
Opportunity Sampling
Taking the sample from people who are available and convenient at the time in the study
Opportunity strength
Convenient, quick, easy
Less costly than other methods
Opportunity weakness
Unrepresentative of target population so cannot generalise findings
Reasearcher bias - complete representation of the target population is not possible
Volunteer Sampling
Participants becoming part of a study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an advert
Volunteer strength
Simple and easy
Less time consuming
Volunteer weakness
Volunteer bias - may attract a certain type of profile, this affects the generalisability of the results
Systematic Sampling
Every nth member of the target population selected
Systematic strength
Avoids researcher bias - once the system has been chosen there is no influence over participants
Fairly representative
Systematic weakness
Cannot reflect all the ways that people are different - complete representation of the target population is not possible
Stratified Sampling
Classifying the population into sub-groups. Work out the proportions of each sub-group/category. Randomly selecting participants within each strata so there is a similar proportion in each group as the population
Startified strength
Avoid researcher bias
Representative sample - reflects target population so can generalise the findings
Stratified weakness
Cannot reflect all the ways that people are different - complete representation of the target population is not possible
Ethical Issues
When ethical guidelines are broken, so investigators become unethical
Informed Consent
Participants must be given comprehensive info about and purpose of the study, can make an educated decision if they want to participate
Deception
Participant not told true aim of the study
Protection From Harm
During a study the participant should not experience any negative physical/psycological effects
Confidentiality
Communication of personal information from one person to another
Privacy
Person has a right to control the flow of info about themselves
Right to withdraw
Can stop participating and remove their data at any point. Can withdraw before, during, and up to 2 weeks after
Debriefing
After study, if participants deceived, they have a right to know the true aim of the study
Cost-benefit analysis
Judge cost of doing research against benefits
Consent form
For participants to understand the purpose of the research and their involvement, appropriate to target population
Consent form (structure)
Title,
Thank you,
Introduction to purpose of the study,
Answer to FAQs,
Name and contact details of researcher, and somewhere to sign
Debrief form
Deals with deception and reminds participants of their ethical rights, given after study
Debrief form (structure)
Aim of study,
Outline both conditions of study if uses independent measures,
Ask if questions and give who to ask,
Relevant ethical considerations,
Offer someone to talk to if distressed,
A thank you
Nominal
Data separated into categories
e.g. grouping people according to their favourite football team
Ordinal
Ordered in a way
e.g. Asking someone to list food in order of their personal preferences
Interval
Measured using units of equal intervals
e.g. Measuring someone in cm
Closed questions
Questions with set answers like “Yes” or “No”
Open questions
Questions with no set answers like “Why” questions
Likert questions
Questions on a questionnaire to measure opinion/attitude/behaviour
Structured interview
Pre-determined questions, no deviation
Semi structured
Has some pre-prepared questions but can deviate from
Unstructured
No pre-prepared questions
Covert
Observation where people are unaware they are being studied
Covert strength
Produces natural behaviours
Reduces chance of investigator effects
Covert weakness
Unethical as paarticipants cant give informed consent
Overt
Observation where the participant knows they are beings studied
Overt strength
Participants gain informed consent so is ethical
Overt weakness
Particpants may act differently to how they would if they werent being observed
Natrualistic
Observation carriedd out in a natural environment, investigtor doesnt interfere
Naturalistic strength
More accurate to how people behave in real life situations, ecological validity
Naturalistic weakness
Less control over behaviour
Lower internal validity
Controlled
Observation where behaviour is observed under conditions where certain variables have been organised by the researcher
Controlled strength
High level of control
Focus on participant aspect of behaviour more precise
Controll weakness
Observation feeling unnatural;
Participants may be more likely to show demand characteristics
Participant
Observation made by someone who is participating in the activity being observed
Participant strength
More in-depth information on your participants behaviour
Data more likely to be valid
Participant weakness
May have thical issues because covert
Participants show demand characterstics becasuse overt
Non Participant
Observation where observer is separate from the people being observed
Non participant strength
Objective, researcher able to see behaviour from outsider perspective
Non-Participant weakness
Do not get participants insight
Content Analysis
Systematically analysing various kinds of qualitative data. Can be placed into categories and counted (quantitive), or analysed in themes (qualitiative)
How to conduct content analysis
- Choose sample e.g. magazine
- Choose sample method e.g. time sampling or event sampling
3.watch/read sample and identify potential categories
4.Two psychologists then compare categories and use the ones they have both agreed on
5.Give examples of the categories - Carry out the content analysis seperately, rewatch/read the sample and note the number of times something falls into one of the categories
- Psychologists then compare answers, look for agreement and use appropraite statistical test to analyse reliability of results
Thematic Analysis
Qualitative, analysis of themes that appear in the material
How to conduct thematic anaylysis
- Watch/read sample given (clip/diary/etc)
- Identify potential implicated or explicit themes/ideas from the data (emergent themes)
- Collect new sample of data to test validity of the themes
- Write up a final report using direct qoutes from data to illistrate each theme
Content analysis strength
High ecological validity, because analysis of real life communication
Sources accessable by others, so easily replicated, high reliability
Content analysis weakness
Observer bias, reduces validity and objectivity
Likely to be culturally bias, interpritation of verbal/written content affected by language of observer and behavioural catergories
Inter-rater reliability
Observations should be consistent, observers discuss and agree beforehand their interpritation of the behaviours, they watch the same event but record data seperately, data then correlated appropriately with strong positive correlation (+0.8)
Inter-rater reliability improvement
Make sure behavioural categoriesproperlu operationalised and not broad, categories shouldnt overlap
